Uncoupling of macrophage inflammation from self-renewal modulates host recovery from respiratory viral infection.

Tissue macrophages self-renew during homeostasis and produce inflammatory mediators upon microbial infection. We examined the relationship between proliferative and inflammatory properties of tissue macrophages by defining the impact of the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, a central regulator of self-renewal, in alveolar macrophages (AMs). Activation of ß-catenin by Wnt ligand inhibited AM proliferation and stemness, but promoted inflammatory activity. In a murine influenza viral pneumonia model, ß-catenin-mediated AM inflammatory activity promoted acute host morbidity; in contrast, AM proliferation enabled repopulation of reparative AMs and tissue recovery following viral clearance. Mechanistically, Wnt treatment promoted ß-catenin-HIF-1α interaction and glycolysis-dependent inflammation while suppressing mitochondrial metabolism and thereby, AM proliferation. Differential HIF-1α activities distinguished proliferative and inflammatory AMs in vivo. This ß-catenin-HIF-1α axis was conserved in human AMs and enhanced HIF-1α expression associated with macrophage inflammation in COVID-19 patients. Thus, inflammatory and reparative activities of lung macrophages are regulated by ß-catenin-HIF-1α signaling, with implications for the treatment of severe respiratory diseases.

Heterogenous Populations of Tissue-Resident CD8+ T Cells Are Generated in Response to Infection and Malignancy.

Tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells (Trm) provide host protection through continuous surveillance of non-lymphoid tissues. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) and genetic reporter mice, we identified discrete lineages of intestinal antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, including a Blimp1hiId3lo tissue-resident effector cell population most prominent in the early phase of acute viral and bacterial infections and a molecularly distinct Blimp1loId3hi tissue-resident memory population that subsequently accumulated at later infection time points. These Trm populations exhibited distinct cytokine production, secondary memory potential, and transcriptional programs including differential roles for transcriptional regulators Blimp1, T-bet, Id2, and Id3 in supporting and maintaining intestinal Trm. Extending our analysis to malignant tissue, we also identified discrete populations of effector-like and memory-like CD8+ T cell populations with tissue-resident gene-expression signatures that shared features of terminally exhausted and progenitor-exhausted T cells, respectively. Our findings provide insight into the development and functional heterogeneity of Trm cells, which has implications for enhancing vaccination and immunotherapy approaches.

Orbital-selective time-domain signature of nematicity dynamics in the charge-density-wave phase of La1.65Eu0.2Sr0.15CuO4.

Understanding the interplay between charge, nematic, and structural ordering tendencies in cuprate superconductors is critical to unraveling their complex phase diagram. Using pump-probe time-resolved resonant X-ray scattering on the (0 0 1) Bragg peak at the Cu [Formula: see text] and O [Formula: see text] resonances, we investigate nonequilibrium dynamics of [Formula: see text] nematic order and its association with both charge density wave (CDW) order and lattice dynamics in La[Formula: see text]Eu[Formula: see text]Sr[Formula: see text]CuO[Formula: see text]. The orbital selectivity of the resonant X-ray scattering cross-section allows nematicity dynamics associated with the planar O 2[Formula: see text] and Cu 3[Formula: see text] states to be distinguished from the response of anisotropic lattice distortions. A direct time-domain comparison of CDW translational-symmetry breaking and nematic rotational-symmetry breaking reveals that these broken symmetries remain closely linked in the photoexcited state, consistent with the stability of CDW topological defects in the investigated pump fluence regime.

Reverse vaccinology-based identification of a novel surface lipoprotein that is an effective vaccine antigen against bovine infections caused by Pasteurella multocida.

Pasteurella multocida can infect a multitude of wild and domesticated animals, with infections in cattle resulting in hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) or contributing to bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex. Current cattle vaccines against P. multocida consist of inactivated bacteria, which only offer limited and serogroup specific protection. Here, we describe a newly identified surface lipoprotein, PmSLP, that is present in nearly all annotated P. multocida strains isolated from cattle. Bovine associated variants span three of the four identified phylogenetic clusters, with PmSLP-1 and PmSLP-2 being restricted to BRD associated isolates and PmSLP-3 being restricted to isolates associated with HS. Recombinantly expressed, soluble PmSLP-1 (BRD-PmSLP) and PmSLP-3 (HS-PmSLP) vaccines were both able to provide full protection in a mouse sepsis model against the matched P. multocida strain, however no cross-protection and minimal serum IgG cross-reactivity was identified. Full protection against both challenge strains was achieved with a bivalent vaccine containing both BRD-PmSLP and HS-PmSLP, with serum IgG from immunized mice being highly reactive to both variants. Year-long stability studies with lyophilized antigen stored under various temperatures show no appreciable difference in biophysical properties or loss of efficacy in the mouse challenge model. PmSLP-1 and PmSLP-3 vaccines were each evaluated for immunogenicity in two independent cattle trials involving animals of different age ranges and breeds. In all four trials, vaccination with PmSLP resulted in an increase in antigen specific serum IgG over baseline. In a blinded cattle challenge study with a recently isolated HS strain, the matched HS-PmSLP vaccine showed strong efficacy (75-87.5% survival compared to 0% in the control group). Together, these data suggest that cattle vaccines composed of PmSLP antigens can be a practical and effective solution for preventing HS and BRD related P. multocida infections.

Colloidal Synthesis of Metal Nanocrystals: From Asymmetrical Growth to Symmetry Breaking.

Nanocrystals offer a unique platform for tailoring the physicochemical properties of solid materials to enhance their performances in various applications. While most work on controlling their shapes revolves around symmetrical growth, the introduction of asymmetrical growth and thus symmetry breaking has also emerged as a powerful route to enrich metal nanocrystals with new shapes and complex morphologies as well as unprecedented properties and functionalities. The success of this route critically relies on our ability to lift the confinement on symmetry by the underlying unit cell of the crystal structure and/or the initial seed in a systematic manner. This Review aims to provide an account of recent progress in understanding and controlling asymmetrical growth and symmetry breaking in a colloidal synthesis of noble-metal nanocrystals. With a touch on both the nucleation and growth steps, we discuss a number of methods capable of generating seeds with diverse symmetry while achieving asymmetrical growth for mono-, bi-, and multimetallic systems. We then showcase a variety of symmetry-broken nanocrystals that have been reported, together with insights into their growth mechanisms. We also highlight their properties and applications and conclude with perspectives on future directions in developing this class of nanomaterials. It is hoped that the concepts and existing challenges outlined in this Review will drive further research into understanding and controlling the symmetry breaking process.

Id3 expression identifies CD4+ memory Th1 cells.

Memory CD4+ T cells play a pivotal role in mediating long-term protective immunity, positioning them as an important target in vaccine development. However, multiple functionally distinct helper CD4+ T-cell subsets can arise in response to a single invading pathogen, complicating the identification of rare populations of memory precursor cells during the effector phase of infection and memory CD4+ T cells following pathogen clearance and the contraction phase of infection. Furthermore, current literature remains unclear regarding whether a single CD4+ memory T-cell lineage gives rise to secondary CD4+ T helper subsets or if there are unique memory precursor cells within each helper lineage. A majority of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, which have established memory potential, express Id3, an inhibitor of E protein transcription factors, following acute viral infection. We show that expression of Id3 definitively identified a subset of cells within both the CD4+ Tfh and T helper 1 (Th1) lineages at memory time points that exhibited memory potential, with the capacity for significant re-expansion in response to secondary infection. Notably, we demonstrate that a subset of Th1 cells that survive into the memory phase were marked by Id3 expression and possessed the potential for enhanced expansion and generation of both Th1 and Tfh secondary effector cell populations in a secondary response to pathogen. Additionally, these cells exhibited enrichment of key molecules associated with memory potential when compared with Id3lo Th1 cells. Therefore, we propose that Id3 expression serves as an important marker to indicate multipotent potential in memory CD4+ T cells.

Delphi consensus on stereotactic ablative radiotherapy for oligometastatic and oligoprogressive renal cell carcinoma-a European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology study endorsed by the European Association of Urology.

The purpose of this European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) project, endorsed by the European Association of Urology, is to explore expert opinion on the management of patients with oligometastatic and oligoprogressive renal cell carcinoma by means of stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR) on extracranial metastases, with the aim of developing consensus recommendations for patient selection, treatment doses, and concurrent systemic therapy. A questionnaire on SABR in oligometastatic renal cell carcinoma was prepared by a core group and reviewed by a panel of ten prominent experts in the field. The Delphi consensus methodology was applied, sending three rounds of questionnaires to clinicians identified as key opinion leaders in the field. At the end of the third round, participants were able to find consensus on eight of the 37 questions. Specifically, panellists agreed to apply no restrictions regarding age (25 [100%) of 25) and primary renal cell carcinoma histology (23 [92%] of 25) for SABR candidates, on the upper threshold of three lesions to offer ablative treatment in patients with oligoprogression, and on the concomitant administration of immune checkpoint inhibitor. SABR was indicated as the treatment modality of choice for renal cell carcinoma bone oligometatasis (20 [80%] of 25) and for adrenal oligometastases 22 (88%). No consensus or major agreement was reached regarding the appropriate schedule, but the majority of the poll (54%-58%) retained the every-other-day schedule as the optimal choice for all the investigated sites. The current ESTRO Delphi consensus might provide useful direction for the application of SABR in oligometastatic renal cell carcinoma and highlight the key areas of ongoing debate, perhaps directing future research efforts to close knowledge gaps.

Type 2 vomeronasal receptor-A4 subfamily: Potential predator sensors in mice.

Sensory signals detected by olfactory sensory organs are critical regulators of animal behavior. An accessory olfactory organ, the vomeronasal organ, detects cues from other animals and plays a pivotal role in intra- and inter-species interactions in mice. However, how ethologically relevant cues control mouse behavior through approximately 350 vomeronasal sensory receptor proteins largely remains elusive. The type 2 vomeronasal receptor-A4 (V2R-A4) subfamily members have been repeatedly detected from vomeronasal sensory neurons responsive to predator cues, suggesting a potential role of this receptor subfamily as a sensor for predators. This review focuses on this intriguing subfamily, delving into its receptor functions and genetic characteristics.

GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Promote Weight Loss Among People with HIV.

BACKGROUND: Weight gain and associated metabolic complications are increasingly prevalent among people with HIV (PWH). Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) are incretin-based therapies for diabetes and weight management that have been shown to result in substantial weight loss; however, studies of their effects in PWH are limited. METHODS: A retrospective single-center cohort study was conducted among PWH who were taking GLP-1RAs at UC San Diego Owen Clinic between 2/1/2021 to 2/1/2023. Baseline clinical data were collected and changes in weight, body mass index (BMI), and hemoglobin A1C (A1C) before starting GLP-1RAs compared to the most recent clinic visit were calculated (with a minimum of 3 months follow-up time required). Logistic regression was performed to identify variables associated with >5% of total body weight loss. RESULTS: A total of 225 patients received on average 13 months of GLP-1RA therapy, with 85 (37.8%) achieving the maximum GLP-1RA dose. GLP-1RA therapy resulted, on average, in a loss of 5.4 kg, decrease in BMI by 1.8 kg/m2, and decrease in A1C by 0.6%. In the multivariable analysis, higher baseline BMI [OR 1.10 (1.03-1.16)], treatment duration of GLP-1RA therapy greater than 6 months [OR 3.12 (1.49-6.49], and use of tirzepatide [OR 5.46 (1.44-20.76)] were significantly more likely to be associated with >5% weight loss. CONCLUSIONS: Use of GLP-1RAs led to declines in weight, BMI, and hemoglobin A1C among PWH and offers an additional strategy to address weight gain and diabetes.

Elucidating the Role of Reduction Kinetics in the Phase-Controlled Growth on Preformed Nanocrystal Seeds: A Case Study of Ru.

This study demonstrates the crucial role of reduction kinetics in phase-controlled synthesis of noble-metal nanocrystals using Ru nanocrystals as a case study. We found that the reduction kinetics played a more important role than the templating effect from the preformed seed in dictating the crystal structure of the deposited overlayers despite their intertwined effects on successful epitaxial growth. By employing two different polyols, a series of Ru nanocrystals with tunable sizes of 3-7 nm and distinct patterns of crystal phase were synthesized by incorporating different types of Ru seeds. Notably, the use of ethylene glycol and triethylene glycol consistently resulted in the formation of Ru shell in natural hexagonal close-packed (hcp) and metastable face-centered cubic (fcc) phases, respectively, regardless of the size and phase of the seed. Quantitative measurements and theoretical calculations suggested that this trend was a manifestation of the different reduction kinetics associated with the precursor and the chosen polyol, which, in turn, affected the reduction pathway (solution versus surface) and packing sequence of the deposited Ru atoms. This work not only underscores the essential role of reduction kinetics in controlling the packing of atoms and thus the phase taken by Ru nanocrystals but also suggests a potential extension to other noble-metal systems.

Deep Learning - Methods to Amplify Epidemiological Data Collection and Analyses.

Deep learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence and machine learning based mostly on neural networks and often combined with attention algorithms that has been used to detect and identify objects in text, audio, images, and video. Serghiou and Rough (Am J Epidemiol. 0000;000(00):0000-0000) present a primer for epidemiologists on deep learning models. These models provide substantial opportunities for epidemiologists to expand and amplify their research in both data collection and analyses by increasing the geographic reach of studies, including more research subjects, and working with large or high dimensional data. The tools for implementing deep learning methods are not quite yet as straightforward or ubiquitous for epidemiologists as traditional regression methods found in standard statistical software, but there are exciting opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration with deep learning experts, just as epidemiologists have with statisticians, healthcare providers, urban planners, and other professionals. Despite the novelty of these methods, epidemiological principles of assessing bias, study design, interpretation and others still apply when implementing deep learning methods or assessing the findings of studies that have used them.

Survival trends among patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer before and after the approval of immunotherapy in the United States: A Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database-based study.

BACKGROUND: In 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration approved nivolumab as the first immunotherapy for patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, population-based survival benefit studies after the introduction of immunotherapy in lung cancer are lacking. This study examined overall survival (OS) and cancer-specific survival in patients with NSCLC in the pre immunotherapy and immunotherapy eras. METHODS: This study used the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, which spanned 17 registries from 2000 to 2020. Two cohorts were delineated: preimmunotherapy (2010-2014) and immunotherapy (2015-2020), which coincided with nivolumab's approval. RESULTS: This study included 191,802 patients, 90,807 in the preimmunotherapy era and 100,995 in the immunotherapy era. OS was significantly higher in the immunotherapy era, as shown by Kaplan-Meier curves (1-year OS, 40.1% vs. 33.5%; 3-year OS, 17.8% vs. 11.7%; 5-year OS, 10.7% vs. 6.8%; median OS, 8 vs. 7 months; p < .001 by log-rank test). Similarly, cancer-specific survival improved in the immunotherapy era (1-year survival, 44.0% vs. 36.8%; 3-year survival, 21.7% vs. 14.4%; 5-year survival, 14.3% vs. 9.0%; median OS, 10 vs. 8 months; p < .001 by log-rank test). Survival rates were significantly better in the immunotherapy era, as confirmed by multivariate analysis with a Cox proportional hazards model after adjusting for age, sex, race, income, and geographical area (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.830; 95% CI, 0.821-0.840; p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: In summary, the survival rate of patients with metastatic NSCLC has improved since the introduction of immunotherapy.

Observation of a massive phason in a charge-density-wave insulator.

The lowest-lying fundamental excitation of an incommensurate charge-density-wave material is believed to be a massless phason-a collective modulation of the phase of the charge-density-wave order parameter. However, long-range Coulomb interactions should push the phason energy up to the plasma energy of the charge-density-wave condensate, resulting in a massive phason and fully gapped spectrum1. Using time-domain terahertz emission spectroscopy, we investigate this issue in (TaSe4)2I, a quasi-one-dimensional charge-density-wave insulator. On transient photoexcitation at low temperatures, we find the material strikingly emits coherent, narrowband terahertz radiation. The frequency, polarization and temperature dependences of the emitted radiation imply the existence of a phason that acquires mass by coupling to long-range Coulomb interactions. Our observations underscore the role of long-range interactions in determining the nature of collective excitations in materials with modulated charge or spin order.

A Decade of Tweets: Visualizing Racial Sentiments Towards Minoritized Groups in the United States Between 2011 and 2021.

BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated the negative impact of racism on health, yet the measurement of racial sentiment remains challenging. This article provides practical guidance on using social media data for measuring public sentiment. METHODS: We describe the main steps of such research, including data collection, data cleaning, binary sentiment analysis, and visualization of findings. We randomly sampled 55,844,310 publicly available tweets from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2021 using Twitter's Application Programming Interface. We restricted analyses to US tweets in English using one or more 90 race-related keywords. We used a Support Vector Machine, a supervised machine learning model, for sentiment analysis. RESULTS: The proportion of tweets referencing racially minoritized groups that were negative increased at the county, state, and national levels, with a 16.5% increase at the national level from 2011 to 2021. Tweets referencing Black and Middle Eastern people consistently had the highest proportion of negative sentiment compared with all other groups. Stratifying temporal trends by racial and ethnic groups revealed unique patterns reflecting historical events specific to each group, such as the killing of George Floyd regarding sentiment of posts referencing Black people, discussions of the border crisis near the 2018 midterm elections and anti-Latinx sentiment, and the emergence of COVID-19 and anti-Asian sentiment. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the utility of social media data as a quantitative means to measure racial sentiment over time and place. This approach can be extended to a range of public health topics to investigate how changes in social and cultural norms impact behaviors and policy.A supplemental digital video is available at http://links.lww.com/EDE/C91.

High-harmonic spin-shearing interferometry for spatially resolved EUV magneto-optical spectroscopy.

We present a method for achieving hyperspectral magnetic imaging in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) region based on high-harmonic generation (HHG). By interfering two mutually coherent orthogonally-polarized and laterally-sheared HHG sources, we create an EUV illumination beam with spatially-dependent ellipticity. By placing a magnetic sample in the beamline and sweeping the relative time delay between the two sources, we record a spatially resolved interferogram that is sensitive to the EUV magnetic circular dichroism of the sample. This image contains the spatially-resolved magneto-optical response of the sample at each harmonic order, and can be used to measure the magnetic properties of spatially inhomogeneous magnetic samples.

TMEM106B coding variant is protective and deletion detrimental in a mouse model of tauopathy.

TMEM106B is a risk modifier of multiple neurological conditions, where a single coding variant and multiple non-coding SNPs influence the balance between susceptibility and resilience. Two key questions that emerge from past work are whether the lone T185S coding variant contributes to protection, and if the presence of TMEM106B is helpful or harmful in the context of disease. Here, we address both questions while expanding the scope of TMEM106B study from TDP-43 to models of tauopathy. We generated knockout mice with constitutive deletion of TMEM106B, alongside knock-in mice encoding the T186S knock-in mutation (equivalent to the human T185S variant), and crossed both with a P301S transgenic tau model to study how these manipulations impacted disease phenotypes. We found that TMEM106B deletion accelerated cognitive decline, hind limb paralysis, tau pathology, and neurodegeneration. TMEM106B deletion also increased transcriptional correlation with human AD and the functional pathways enriched in KO:tau mice aligned with those of AD. In contrast, the coding variant protected against tau-associated cognitive decline, synaptic impairment, neurodegeneration, and paralysis without affecting tau pathology. Our findings reveal that TMEM106B is a critical safeguard against tau aggregation, and that loss of this protein has a profound effect on sequelae of tauopathy. Our study further demonstrates that the coding variant is functionally relevant and contributes to neuroprotection downstream of tau pathology to preserve cognitive function.

Early-life house dust mite aeroallergen exposure augments cigarette smoke-induced myeloid inflammation and emphysema in mice.

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal studies have identified childhood asthma as a risk factor for obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma-COPD overlap (ACO) where persistent airflow limitation can develop more aggressively. However, a causal link between childhood asthma and COPD/ACO remains to be established. Our study aimed to model the natural history of childhood asthma and COPD and to investigate the cellular/molecular mechanisms that drive disease progression. METHODS: Allergic airways disease was established in three-week-old young C57BL/6 mice using house dust mite (HDM) extract. Mice were subsequently exposed to cigarette smoke (CS) and HDM for 8 weeks. Airspace enlargement (emphysema) was measured by the mean linear intercept method. Flow cytometry was utilised to phenotype lung immune cells. Bulk RNA-sequencing was performed on lung tissue. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in bronchoalveolar lavage-fluid were analysed to screen for disease-specific biomarkers. RESULTS: Chronic CS exposure induced emphysema that was significantly augmented by HDM challenge. Increased emphysematous changes were associated with more abundant immune cell lung infiltration consisting of neutrophils, interstitial macrophages, eosinophils and lymphocytes. Transcriptomic analyses identified a gene signature where disease-specific changes induced by HDM or CS alone were conserved in the HDM-CS group, and further revealed an enrichment of Mmp12, Il33 and Il13, and gene expression consistent with greater expansion of alternatively activated macrophages. VOC analysis also identified four compounds increased by CS exposure that were paradoxically reduced in the HDM-CS group. CONCLUSIONS: Early-life allergic airways disease worsened emphysematous lung pathology in CS-exposed mice and markedly alters the lung transcriptome.

Self-Assembly of the Porphyrin Monomer on the Surface of Fe/Graphene Material: a Novel Sensing Material for the Detection of Chloramphenicol Antibiotic in Aqueous solution.

Currently, electrochemical sensors are being developed and widely used in various fields, and new materials are being explored to enhance the precision and selectivity of the sensors. The present investigation involved the fabrication of a Fe/graphene/porphyrin nanocomposite through self-assembly, wherein the individual porphyrin molecules were arranged on the Fe/graphene nanomaterials' surface. The Fe/graphene nanoparticles were synthesized utilizing a green approach, wherein leaf extract was employed as the reducing agent. The resulting materials underwent comprehensive characterization using a range of contemporary techniques, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman spectroscopy. The study's findings revealed that the nanocomposites of Fe/graphene/porphyrin comprised zero-valent iron nanoparticles, exhibiting an average particle size ranging from 15 to 60 nm. These nanoparticles were seen to be evenly dispersed across the graphene sheets. The presence of nanostructure porphyrin nanofibers, measuring 20 nm in diameter, was also shown to exhibit strong integration with the surface of the Fe/graphene nanomaterials. The electrochemical properties of the Fe/graphene/porphyrin nanocomposite were also investigated, demonstrating that the prepared material could be effectively employed as a sensing electrode in the electrochemical sensor for detecting Chloramphenicol (CAP) through CV, EIS, and DPV techniques using a three-electrode electrochemical system. Under optimal conditions, Fe/graphene/porphyrin exhibited a high current response when detecting CAPs. Electrochemical sensors created using Fe/graphene/porphyrin nanocomposite have high stability and repeatability, and they hold promise in developing sensors capable of identifying other antibiotic residues in agriculture.

SABRE hyperpolarization of nicotinamide derivatives and their molecular dynamics properties.

Signal amplification by reversible exchange hyperpolarization explores the chemical structure and kinetic properties of nicotinamide derivatives. N-Benzyl nicotinamide and nicotinic acid hydrazide compounds display relatively fast dissociation rates of approximately 7-8 s-1 and long proton T1 relaxation times of 5-20 s, respectively. Consequently, these substrates exhibit remarkable signal enhancements, reaching approximately 175 and 102 fold, respectively, underscoring the efficacy of the hyperpolarization technique in elucidating the behavior of these compounds.

Progress in elementary school reading linked to growth of cortical responses to familiar letter combinations within visual word forms.

Learning to read depends on the ability to extract precise details of letter combinations, which convey critical information that distinguishes tens of thousands of visual word forms. To support fluent reading skill, one crucial neural developmental process is one's brain sensitivity to statistical constraints inherent in combining letters into visual word forms. To test this idea in early readers, we tracked the impact of two years of schooling on within-subject longitudinal changes in cortical responses to three different properties of words: coarse tuning for print, and fine tuning to either familiar letter combinations within visual word forms or whole word representations. We then examined how each related to growth in reading skill. Three stimulus contrasts-words versus pseudofonts, words versus pseudowords, pseudowords versus nonwords-were presented while high-density EEG Steady-State Visual Evoked Potentials (SSVEPs, n = 31) were recorded. Internalization of abstract visual word form structures over two years of reading experience resulted in a near doubling of SSVEP amplitude, with increasing left lateralization. Longitudinal changes (decreases) in brain responses to such word form structural information were linked to the growth in reading skills, especially in rapid automatic naming of letters. No such changes were observed for whole word representation processing and coarse tuning for print. Collectively, these findings indicate that sensitivity to visual word form structure develops rapidly through exposure to print and is linked to growth in reading skill. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Longitudinal changes in cognitive responses to coarse print tuning, visual word from structure, and whole word representation were examined in early readers. Visual word form structure processing demonstrated striking patterns of growth with nearly doubled in EEG amplitude and increased left lateralization. Longitudinal changes (decreases) in brain responses to visual word form structural information were linked to the growth in rapid automatic naming for letters. No longitudinal changes were observed for whole word representation processing and coarse tuning for print.