Rural electrification in Brazil and implications for schistosomiasis transmission: a preliminary study in a rural community in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the potential transmission of Schistosoma mansoni through well water pumped into households in a rural Brazilian community within the context of Brazil's rural electrification program Luz Para Todos (Light for All). METHODS: All households were interviewed about their water facilities and domestic water use, all household members were examined for S. mansoni infections and positives treated, and malacological and water contact studies were performed between 2001 and 2009. RESULTS: Thirty-one of the 142 households in the Virgem das Graças study area owned wells with electric pumps in 2009, vs. no wells in 2001, and the number of water storage tanks increased from 85 to 131. The potential for schistosomiasis transmission through piped well water was indicated by the recovery of Biomphalaria gabrata, including S. mansoni-infected snails, from wells, the presence of Biomphalaria in tanks and the ability of S. mansoni cercariae to remain infective for considerable distances in flowing water. However, access to well water was not associated with higher S. mansoni infection rates. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that further studies are needed to determine the infectivity of well water and its impact on schistosomiasis transmission.

Identifying thresholds for classifying moderate-to-heavy soil-transmitted helminth intensity infections for FECPAKG2, McMaster, Mini-FLOTAC and qPCR.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined moderate-to-heavy intensity (M&HI) infections with soil-transmitted helminths (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and the two hookworms, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus) based on specific values of eggs per gram of stool, as measured by the Kato-Katz method. There are a variety of novel microscopy and DNA-based methods but it remains unclear whether applying current WHO thresholds on to these methods allows for a reliable classification of M&HI infections. We evaluated both WHO and method-specific thresholds for classifying the M&HI infections for novel microscopic (FECPAKG2, McMaster and Mini-FLOTAC) and DNA-based (qPCR) diagnostic methods. For this, we determined method-specific thresholds that best classified M&HI infections (defined by Kato-Katz and WHO thresholds; reference method) in two multi-country drug efficacy studies. Subsequently, we verified whether applying these method-specific thresholds improved the agreement in classifying M&HI infections compared to the reference method. When we applied the WHO thresholds, the new microscopic methods mainly misclassified M&HI as low intensity, and to a lesser extent low intensity infection as M&HI. For FECPAKG2, applying the method-specific thresholds significantly improved the agreement for Ascaris (moderate → substantial), Trichuris and hookworms (fair → moderate). For Mini-FLOTAC, a significantly improved agreement was observed for hookworms only (fair → moderate). For the other STHs, the agreement was almost perfect and remained unchanged. For McMaster, the method-specific thresholds revealed a fair to a substantial agreement but did not significantly improve the agreement. For qPCR, the method-specific thresholds based on genome equivalents per ml of DNA moderately agreed with the reference method for hookworm and Trichuris infections. For Ascaris, there was a substantial agreement. We defined method-specific thresholds that improved the classification of M&HI infections. Validation studies are required before they can be recommended for general use in assessing M&HI infections in programmatic settings.

IgE antibodies from schistosomiasis patients to recognize epitopes in potato apyrase.

INTRODUCTION: High percentages of structural identity and cross-immunoreactivity have been reported between potato apyrase and Schistosoma mansoni ATP diphosphohydrolase (SmATPDases) isoforms, showing the existence of particular epitopes shared between these proteins. METHODS: Potato apyrase was employed using ELISA, western blot, and mouse immunization methods to verify IgE reactivity. RESULTS: Most of the schistosomiasis patient's (75%) serum was seropositive for potato apyrase and this protein was recognized using western blotting, suggesting that parasite and plant proteins share IgE-binding epitopes. C57BL/6 mice immunized with potato apyrase showed increased IgE antibody production. CONCLUSIONS: Potato apyrase and SmATPDases have IgE-binding epitopes.

HIV aspartyl protease inhibitors modify the percentage of activated leukocytes, as well as serum levels of IL-17A and NO during experimental leishmaniasis.

HIV aspartyl protease inhibitors are able to modulate multiple defense mechanisms. However, their influence on the immune response against Leishmania has rarely been investigated. The aim of our study was to investigate whether in vivo treatment with HIV aspartyl protease inhibitors is able to modulate the immune response during Leishmania infection. Using Leishmania (L.) amazonensis-infected mice, we analyzed the disease evolution and parasite load, immunophenotypic profiles of splenic T and B lymphocytes, numbers of lymphoid aggregates in the spleen, percentages of circulating atypical lymphocytes and reactive monocytes, and serum levels of cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) after 30 days of oral treatment with lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) or atazanavir (ATV). We observed that LPV/RTV and ATV did not modify the disease evolution or parasite load. However, the antiretroviral treatment induced an increase in activated lymphocytes in the spleen and blood, as well as a decrease in CD69 expression in T and B lymphocytes in the spleen. The treatment also resulted in an increase in activated monocytes in the blood. In addition, antiretrovirals decreased levels of IL-17A and increased levels of NO in sera from Leishmania-infected mice. Thus, our results demonstrate for the first time that in vivo treatment with HIV aspartyl protease inhibitors modifies innate and adaptative immune responses during Leishmania infection and suggest that these drugs could change the clinical course of leishmaniasis in HIV infected-individuals.

Combined methods for the study of water contact behavior in a rural schistosomiasis-endemic area in Brazil.

A new combined methodology consisting of direct observation and two types of interviews (internal and external interviews) was evaluated for use in exposure risk assessment in schistosomiasis. Specific objectives were to determine its usefulness in achieving equitable coverage of gendered exposure risk and its efficiency in identifying water contact behavior in a rural area in Brazil with different settlement patterns, land use and domestic water supplies. Of the 2476 water contacts recorded, 1223 (49.4%) were identified by direct observation, 946 (38.2%) by internal interviews and 307 (12.4%) by external interviews. Significantly longer mean durations of contacts were recorded for females and greater mean percentage of body surface exposed for males (P<0.01), reflecting differences in gendered water contact activities. Direct observation identified slightly more male contacts, external interviews significantly more male contacts (P<0.006), and internal interviews moderately more female contacts. The three methods recorded mean numbers of contacts and mean TBM (total body minutes) per person, declining with age. Significant differences were found between the three methods in regard to frequency and/or intensity of washing clothes, fetching water, washing utensils, washing multiple parts of the body, and bathing. The three methods also recorded differentially frequencies and exposure intensities in the three study communities, among different age groups, by gender and for individual study members. These activity-, locality-, age/gender- and person-specific patterns reflect the relative efficiency and complementarity of the three methods in settlements with different land use, access to streams and water supplies.

Neurological disease in HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral treatment: a Brazilian experience.

To study characteristics of neurological disorders in HIV/AIDS patients and their relationship to highly active antiretroviral treatment, a cross-sectional study was conducted in an infectious disease public hospital in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, between February 1999 and March 2000. Of the 417 patients enrolled, neurological disease was observed in 194 (46.5%) and a new AIDS-defining neurological event developed in 23.7% of individuals. Toxoplasmosis (42.3%), cryptococcosis meningitis (12.9%) and tuberculosis (10.8%) were the most common causes of neurological complications. The majority (79.3%) of patients were on highly active antiretroviral treatment and these individuals using HAART showed higher CD4 cell counts (p = 0.014) and presented stable neurological disease (p = 0.0001), although no difference was found with respect to the profile of neurological complications. The neurological diseases continue to be a frequent complication of HIV/AIDS and infections are still its main causes in Brazil, even in the highly active antiretroviral treatment era.

IgE antibodies from schistosomiasis patients to recognize epitopes in potato apyrase

Abstract INTRODUCTION: High percentages of structural identity and cross-immunoreactivity have been reported between potato apyrase and Schistosoma mansoni ATP diphosphohydrolase (SmATPDases) isoforms, showing the existence of particular epitopes shared between these proteins. METHODS: Potato apyrase was employed using ELISA, western blot, and mouse immunization methods to verify IgE reactivity. RESULTS: Most of the schistosomiasis patient's (75%) serum was seropositive for potato apyrase and this protein was recognized using western blotting, suggesting that parasite and plant proteins share IgE-binding epitopes. C57BL/6 mice immunized with potato apyrase showed increased IgE antibody production. CONCLUSIONS: Potato apyrase and SmATPDases have IgE-binding epitopes.

The Human Hookworm Vaccine.

Hookworm infection is one of the world's most common neglected tropical diseases and a leading cause of iron deficiency anemia in low- and middle-income countries. A Human Hookworm Vaccine is currently being developed by the Sabin Vaccine Institute and is in phase 1 clinical testing. The candidate vaccine is comprised of two recombinant antigens known as Na-GST-1 and Na-APR-1, each of which is an important parasite enzyme required for hookworms to successfully utilize host blood as a source of energy. The recombinant proteins are formulated on Alhydrogel(®) and are being tested in combination with a synthetic Toll-like receptor 4 agonist. The aim of the vaccine is to induce anti-enzyme antibodies that will reduce both host blood loss and the number of hookworms attached to the gut. Transfer of the manufacturing technology to the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ)/Bio-Manguinhos (a Brazilian public sector developing country vaccine manufacturer) is planned, with a clinical development plan that could lead to registration of the vaccine in Brazil. The vaccine would also need to be introduced in the poorest regions of Africa and Asia, where hookworm infection is highly endemic. Ultimately, the vaccine could become an essential tool for achieving hookworm control and elimination, a key target in the 2012 London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases.

Indicadores da hanseníase no Estado de Minas Gerais e sua relação com o índice de desenvolvimento humano municipal e a cobertura da estratégia da saúde da família / Indicators of leprosy in the state of Minas Gerais and its relationship with the municipal human development index and the coverage of the family health strategy / Indicadores de lepra en el estado de minas gerais y su relación con el índice de desarrollo humano municipal y la cobertura de la estrategia salud de la familia

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a relação entre os indicadores epidemiológicos da hanseníase, a cobertura da Estratégia da Saúde da Família (ESF) e o Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal (IDHM) em Minas Gerais – Brasil, no período de 1998 a 2013. Trata-se de um estudo ecológico. A forma de mensurar as condições de vida foi a partir do IDHM. Foram realizadas duas análises: uma considerando a média de cada indicador no período de 1998 a 2005, e outra de 2006 a 2013. Foi feita análise descritiva da situação epidemiológica da hanseníase, da cobertura da ESF e do IDHM em Minas Gerais. Em seguida, foi estabelecida uma relação geral entre as taxas de detecções, em menores de 15 anos e com grau 2 de incapacidade e a cobertura da ESF e o IDHM, utilizando os testes de Poisson com inflação de zeros e de Deviance. As análises foram realizadas no programa estatístico SPSS versão 19.0 e Stata versão 10.0. Os resultados sugerem redução da endemia no estado, identificado pela queda dos indicadores da doença. O aumento da cobertura da ESF contribuiu para o aumento da detecção de casos da doença, redução de casos em menores de 15 anos e com grau 2 de incapacidade. Além disso, o aumento do IDHM contribuiu para a redução de casos da doença e de incapacidade grau 2. Apesar das políticas de melhoria do acesso aos serviços de saúde e das condições de vida da população, observa-se a persistência de municípios hiperendêmicos no estado.

The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between the epidemiological indicators of leprosy, the coverage of the Family Health Strategy(ESF) and the Municipal Human Development Index (IDHM) in Minas Gerais – Brasil, from 1998 to 2013. It is an ecological study. The way to measureliving conditions was through the IDHM. Two analysis were carried out: one considering the average of each indicator in the period from 1998 to 2005,and another from 2006 to 2013. A descriptive analysis was made of the epidemiological situation of leprosy, the coverage of the ESF and the IDHM inMinas Gerais. Next, a relationship was established between the general detection rates, in children under 15 years old and with degree 2 of disability;with the coverage of the ESF and the IDHM, using Poisson tests with zero inflation and Deviance. The analysis was performed in the statistical programSPSS version 19.0 and Stata version 10.0. The results suggest a reduction of the endemic disease in the state, identified by the decrease in the disease indicators. Increased ESF coverage has contributed to the increased detection of cases of the disease, reduction of cases in children under 15 years oldand grade 2 disability. The increase in the IDHM has contributed to the reduction of cases of the disease and disability of grade 2. Despite policies toimprove access to health services and the living conditions of the population, we observe the persistence of hyperendemic municipalities in the state.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la relación entre los indicadores epidemiológicos de lepra, la cobertura de la Estrategia Salud de la Familia(ESF) y el Índice de Desarrollo Humano Municipal (IDHM) en Minas Gerais – Brasil, de 1998 a 2013. Se trata de un estudio ecológico. Las condicionesde vida se midieron a través del IDHM. Se realizaron dos análisis: uno basado en el promedio de cada indicador entre 1998 y 2005 y otro entre 2006 y2013. Se realizó el análisis descriptivo de la situación epidemiológica de lepra, de la cobertura de la ESF y del IDHM de Minas Gerais. A continuación, seestableció una relación entre las tasas de detecciones en menores de 15 años y con discapacidad grado 2 y la cobertura de la ESF y el IDHM utilizandolas pruebas de Poisson con inflación de ceros y de deviance. Los análisis se realizaron en el programa estadístico SPSS versión 19.0 y Stata versión10.0. La caída de los indicadores de enfermedad en los resultados señala que reducción de la enfermedad endémica en Minas Gerais. El aumento dela cobertura de la ESF contribuyó al aumento de detección de casos y a la reducción de casos en niños menores de 15 años y discapacidad grado 2.Además, el aumento del IDHM contribuyó a la reducción de casos de la enfermedad y de discapacidad grado 2. Se observa que, a pesar de las políticasde mejora en el acceso a los servicios de salud y en las condiciones de vida de la población, aún persisten municipios hiperendémicos en el estado.

Enteroglial cells act as antigen-presenting cells in chagasic megacolon.

Chagas disease is one of the most serious parasitic diseases of Latin America, with a social and economic impact far outweighing the combined effects of other parasitic diseases such as malaria, leishmaniasis, and schistosomiasis. In the chronic phase of this disease, the destruction of enteric nervous system components leads to megacolon development. Besides neurons, the enteric nervous system is constituted by enteric glial cells, representing an extensive but relatively poorly described population within the gastrointestinal tract. Several lines of evidence suggest that enteric glial cells represent an equivalent of central nervous system astrocytes. Previous data suggest that enteric glia and neurons are active in the enteric nervous system during intestinal inflammatory and immune responses. To evaluate whether these cells act as antigen-presenting cells, we investigated the expression of molecules responsible for activation of T cells, such as HLA-DR complex class II and costimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), by neurons and enteric glial cells. Our results indicate that only enteric glial cells of chagasic patients with megacolon express HLA-DR complex class II and costimulatory molecules, and hence they present the attributes necessary to act as antigen-presenting cells.