What fecal analyses reveal about Manniophyton fulvum consumption in LuiKotale bonobos (Pan paniscus): A medicinal plant revisited.

Observations of animals in the wild can result in the discovery of plants for human medicinal purposes. In this context, our closest relatives, the great apes, are of particular interest. The Euphorbiaceae Manniophyton fulvum possesses both phytochemical and biomechanical properties. Its use in the genus Pan (P. troglodytes; P. paniscus) is thought to be based on its mechanical properties promoting the egestion of intestinal parasites, but additional observations from different habitats where the behavior is performed may shed more light on its true purpose. To improve our understanding of what triggers this behavior, we investigated M. fulvum consumption in wild bonobos at LuiKotale, Democratic Republic of the Congo between December 2018 and July 2020. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that M. fulvum ingestion is related to gastro-intestinal parasite expulsion. Of 649 focal follows of 37 individuals from two habituated communities, consumption of M. fulvum was observed on 111 days (N = 507), independent of seasons, environmental factors and the plant's availability. A total of 588 fecal samples were assessed for the presence/absence of gastro-intestinal parasites. We found strongyle eggs in 2.89% of samples and their presence was not associated with the ingestion of M. fulvum or environmental conditions. We discuss the importance of seasonality in the life cycle of strongyle species that may influence the pattern of M. fulvum consumption observed at LuiKotale. Our data open additional perspectives concerning behavioral parameters such as the existence of a cultural component when comparing ingestion behavior between communities.

Water scooping: tool use by a wild bonobo (Pan paniscus) at LuiKotale, a case report.

Tool use diversity is often considered to differentiate our two closest living relatives: the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and the bonobo (P. paniscus). Chimpanzees appear to have the largest repertoire of tools amongst nonhuman primates, and in this species, many forms of tool use enhance food and water acquisition. In captivity, bonobos seem as adept as chimpanzees in tool use complexity, including in the foraging context. However, in the wild, bonobos have only been observed engaging in habitual tool use in the contexts of comfort, play, self-directed behaviour and communication, whilst no tool-assisted food acquisition has been reported. Whereas captive bonobos use tools for drinking, so far, the only report from the wild populations comes down to four observations of moss sponges used at Lomako. Here, we present the first report of tool use in the form of water scooping by a wild bonobo at LuiKotale. An adult female was observed and videotaped whilst using an emptied Cola chlamydantha pod to scoop and drink water from a stream. We discuss the conditions for such observations and the importance of looking out for rare behaviours and attempt to put the observation into the context of the opportunity versus necessity hypotheses. By adding novel information on tool use, our report contributes to the ongoing efforts to differentiate population-specific traits in the behavioural ecology of the bonobo.