A further discussion of the factors controlling the distribution of Pt, Pd, Rh and Au in road dust, gullies, road sweeper and gully flusher sediment in the city of Sheffield, UK.

Forty paired road dust and gully sediments from the city of Sheffield in NE England show that high platinum, palladium and rhodium concentrations derived from catalytic converters depend on proximity to both roundabouts rather than traffic lights and to topographic lows. Road dust outside schools and control samples, further away on the same road, show that Pt, Pd and Rh concentrations are dependent on passing traffic flow rather than numbers of stopping vehicles. Highest values of Pt+Pd in road dust are 852 ppb and 694 ppb in gullies. Rh has maximum values of 113 ppb in road dust and 49 ppb in gullies. Pt and Pd values of a few ppb to just over 100 ppb occur in road dust where traffic does not stop, on roads away from junctions. Pt, Pd, Rh and Au are all picked up by road sweepers and gully flushers both with maximum values of just over 100 ppb Pt and Pd. High Au values (maximum 610 ppb in a road dust) were located on pavements, in suburbs, outside schools and in road sweepers collecting in residential areas rather than on high traffic flow roads. Stratification of Pt and Pd in gullies was not observed whereas a high Au value was recorded at the bottom of a gully suggesting gravity concentration for Au. Anomalous Pd grades of 1050 ppb in road dust from a school entrance and 2040 ppb in a street sweeper sample were recorded. These high Pd- and Au-bearing samples do not have anomalous Pt or Rh values and may be sourced from jewellery or dental fillings. However, most samples have consistent Pt/Pd ratios of about 1 and Pt/Rh values of 4 to 5 indicating a catalytic converter source. Pt and Pd are concentrated in road dust at levels well above background in all the samples, including on high and low traffic flow roads.

Dispersal and accumulation of Pt, Pd and Rh derived from a roundabout in Sheffield (UK): From stream to tidal estuary.

The Coisley Hill roundabout, a typical urban source for PGE in stream sediments, has anomalously high values of up to 408 ppb Pt, 444 ppb Pd and 113 ppb Rh in road dust, up to 416 ppb Pt and 278 ppb Pd in gulley sediment and up to 606 ppb Pt and 1050 ppb Pd in verge soil. For samples collected at the same time, the road dust values are much higher than in sediments in the Shire Brook stream, that drains the roundabout, with values of 3-64 ppb Pt, 4-57 ppb Pd and up to 7 ppb Rh. Downstream sediments from rivers Rother and Don have lower values of 2-35 ppb Pt, 2-14 ppb Pd and up to 3 ppb Rh. The Humber estuary values are low with 6-8 ppb Pt, 5-8 ppb Pd and 1-2 ppb Rh. Pt/Pd increases down catchment with Coisley Hill 0.8, Shire Brook 1.0, Trent and Don 1.5 and the Humber estuary 2.0. Pt/Rh and Pd/Rh also increase downstream. Precious metals are generally dispersed away from their vehicle catalytic source and Pd is dispersed more than Pt and Rh but Pt and Pd are re-concentrated in acid mine drainage in the Shire Brook, with concentrations varying with stream flow. Pt and Pd values are slightly elevated at the tidal limit and in mud deposited when the river is in spate. On Coisley Hill, values of 133 ppb Pt and 230 ppb Pd occur in dust from a new road surface (two weeks old when sampled). These are similar to those on much older road surfaces suggesting that Pt and Pd collect and disperse rapidly from roads. Au is low in road dust and higher values in conurbations suggest the presence of more Au sources in urban rather than in rural areas. Au values are not diluted downstream as much as PGE suggesting different processes of dispersion and sedimentation.

Platinum and palladium variations through the urban environment: evidence from 11 sample types from Sheffield, UK.

Platinum (Pt) and Palladium (Pd) concentrations have been analysed in 194 samples from within the city of Sheffield in the UK. The samples were taken from road dust, gully pots (also known as drains), soils, a motorway drainage pipe, rivers, lakes, sewage sludge, incinerator ash, incinerator ash in landfill, street cleansers and gully cleansers. The introduction of Pt- and Pd-bearing automobile catalysts, has been cited as the cause of a rise in the concentration of urban Pt and Pd accumulations. Geochemical analyses for the different sample types are used here to show how the Pt and Pd accumulate in different urban environments as they are transported from their catalytic source. Initially Pt and Pd collect in road dust and gully pots at values of up to 450 ppb although most analyses for both elements are around 100 ppb. The four roadside soils analysed, have a great range in values, the highest with a value of over 600 ppb Pt and 1000 ppb Pd. Then the fate of the Pt and Pd is either to be removed by gully flushers and road sweepers (which contain around half the concentration of that in road dust) or to be washed from the roads, through the gully pots, into either the river or urban drainage systems. Due to the addition of terrestrial sediments, river samples contain much reduced values of Pt and Pd, at approximately an order of magnitude lower than in road dust. Similarly, sewage sludge contains Pt and Pd values which are lower than road dust. However, the Pt and Pd analyses are much higher in incinerated sewage (with many samples over 150 ppb for both metals), probably due to the loss of the mass of other material during the incineration process. Weathered incinerator ash in landfill has lower values of Pt and Pd than fresh ash from the incinerator. Although the range in values of Pt and Pd is similar for road dust and gully pot sediments their modal values tell a different story. The mode for Pt is very similar for both road dust and gully pot sediments, at around 100 ppb, whereas there is a drop of 50 ppb in the mode for Pd in the gully pots (from 80 ppb to around 40 ppb). Given that gully pot sediment is derived from road dust, it is suggested that in gully pots, Pd is preferentially mobilized over Pt. Furthermore, a comparison of the modal values of Pt and Pd in river sediments suggests that this process continues into the natural drainage system of the city.

A solvent extraction technique for the measurement of 222Rn at ambient air concentrations.

The high solubility of radon in cold organic solvents is exploited to extract radon directly from a sample air stream into a hexane-based liquid scintillation solution. Up to 10 l. of air is passed through 20 ml of solvent held at -78 degrees C in a bath of dry ice and acetone. The solvent is then transferred to an ordinary glass liquid scintillation vial that has been preloaded with 2 ml of concentrated fluors. A large number of samples can be prepared in a short time with minimal equipment, making it possible for field workers to conveniently collect numerous samples prior to returning to the laboratory. After allowing an interval of at least 3 hr after processing for radon daughter ingrowth, the vials are counted on an unmodified liquid scintillation system with a narrow window set around the radon and polonium alpha peaks. The large sample volume more than compensates for the relatively high alpha background of liquid scintillators. Relevant theoretical considerations and alternate sampling strategies are discussed.

A passive diffusion 222Rn sampler based on activated carbon adsorption.

A simple passive sampler for 222Rn with up to 24-hr integration times can be constructed by using a diffusion barrier to regulate the effective sampling rate of an ambient temperature activated carbon bed. The diffusion element serves to make sampler performance relatively independent of the properties of the type of carbon used. Satisfactory results are obtained if the total effective sample volume is kept well below the equivalent air volume of the activated carbon bed. The influence of various temperature and Rn profiles on the sampler's performance have been examined by experiment and by simulation. The amount of Rn adsorbed may be measured by gamma spectroscopy, by outgassing into an alpha scintillation flask, or by desorption into a liquid scintillator. In the latter case, a sensitivity of 0.2 pCi l-1 is obtainable for 24-hr exposures.

The role of the expert witness: an update.

As in the past, the principle role of the scientist in the courtroom is to assist attorneys, judges, and jurors in understanding the complex scientific and technical issues before them. In the last decade, however, changes in the law and the increasing technical complexity of many disputes have introduced new factors that influence the preparation and presentation of expert testimony. The most significant change in the law regarding expert testimony is arguably the 1993 Supreme Court ruling in Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. Under Daubert, scientific evidence may be submitted to the jury if the judge finds that it rests on a reliable foundation and is relevant to the task at hand. Reliability and relevance replace the older requirement of "general acceptance by the scientific community," although "general acceptance" remains a factor in the consideration of reliability. The tests of reliability and relevance and their impact on the preparation of expert opinions are discussed in the context of increasingly complex radiation cases, with emphasis on cases involving teams of experts.

The occurrence of radioactivity in public water supplies in the United States.

Examination of the collected data for radionuclide concentration measurements in public water supplies in the United States show more than 51,000 measurements for gross alpha-particle activity and/or Ra, 89,900 measurements for U, and 9,000 measurements for Rn. These measurements were made as part of national and state surveys of radionuclide concentrations in utility water supplies for Ra and Rn; and the National Uranium Resource Evolution (NURE) survey for U which included non-utility water supplies. Surface water has low values for Ra and Rn but levels comparable to ground water for U. Separate isotope measurements were not taken for much of the Ra and U data. Because 226Ra to 228Ra ratios and 238U to 234U ratios are not fixed in water, further measurements are needed to establish the specific isotopic concentrations by region. Analysis of the state average values in geological provinces shows the highest provincial areas for Ra are the Upper Coastal Plain, the glaciated Central Platform, and the Colorado plateau. For U, the highest areas are the Colorado plateau, the West Central Platform, and the Rocky Mountains. For Rn, the highest provinces are New England and the Appalachian Highlands-Piedmont. Regional hydrogeological and geochemical models are suggested for guiding the formulation of regional standards and monitoring strategies. Utility supplies serving small populations have the highest concentration for each radionuclide and have the lowest fraction of samples measured, which shows a need for further measurements of these small population water supplies. Risk estimates for the average concentration of Ra in utility ground water give about 941 fatal cancers per 70.7-yr lifetime in the United States. Risk estimates for the average concentration of U in utility surface and ground water give about 105 fatal cancers per 70.7-yr lifetime in the United States. Using 1 pCi/liter in air for 10,000 pCi/l in water, the Rn in utility water risk estimate is for 4,400-22,000 fatal cancers per 70.7-yr lifetime in the United States.

Platinum-group elements in sewage sludge and incinerator ash in the United Kingdom: assessment of PGE sources and mobility in cities.

Platinum-group element (PGE) concentrations in sewage sludge and incinerator ash compared with average PGE concentrations in road dust show a common pattern, characterized by a negative Rh anomaly. This similarity, found at 9 UK incinerators, suggests that there is a universal characteristic PGE pattern produced by common processes of dispersal of Pt, Pd and Rh derived from automobile catalytic converters. Ninety-one sewage sludge and incinerator ash samples from the sewage treatment facilities in Sheffield, Birmingham and 7 other UK cities were analyzed for PGE. The highest concentrations are 602ppb Pt and 710ppb Pd with lower maximum concentrations of 65ppb Rh, 100ppb Ru, 33ppb Ir and 12ppb Os. Ash from incinerated sewage was found to have higher PGE concentrations compared to the original sludge and the PGE ratios are preserved during incineration. Rh is more mobilized and dispersed than the other PGE as it is transported from roads into the drainage system and into sewage. Pt/Pd ratios of 1.0 in road dust and 0.9 in sewage and incinerator ash suggest that Pd is more mobile than Pt during dispersal. PGE abundances in stored incinerator ash of varying ages appear to have been affected by the variation in use of Pt, Pd and Rh in catalytic converters due to variation in their market prices. Concentrations of Os, Ir and Ru in ashes are greater in Sheffield and London than all the other city sites and may be derived from point industrial sources.

Radiological health implications of lead-210 and polonium-210 accumulations in LPG refineries.

Radon-222, a naturally occurring radioactive noble gas, is often a contaminant in natural gas. During fractionation at processing plants, Radon tends to be concentrated in the Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) product stream. Radon-222 decays into a number of radioactive metallic daughters which can plate out on the interior surfaces of plant machinery. The hazards associated with gamma-emitting short-lived radon daughters have been investigated previously. The present work reports an analysis of the hazards associated with the long-lived daughters; Pb-210, Bi-210, and Po-210. These nuclides do not emit appreciable penetrating radiation, and hence do not represent a hazard as long as they remain on the inside surfaces of equipment. However, when equipment that has had prolonged exposure to an LPG stream is disassembled for repair or routine maintenance, opportunities for exposure to radioactive materials can occur. This paper reports a series of measurements made on an impeller taken from a pump in an LPG facility. Alpha spectroscopy revealed the presence of Po-210, and further measurements showed that the amount on the impeller surface was well above the exempt quantity. Breathing zone measurements made in the course of cleaning the impeller showed that an inhalation exposure equivalent to breathing Po-210 at the Maximum Permissible Concentration (MPC) for 60 hours could be delivered in less than half an hour. It was concluded that maintenance and repair work on LPG and derivitive product stream equipment must be carried out with the realization that a potential radiological health problem exists.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Iodine-131 levels in sludge and treated municipal wastewaters near a large medical complex.

Iodine-131 was found to dominate the gamma spectra of dried sludge and concentration liquid effluent samples from a sewage treatment plant serving the area containing the Texas Medical Center in 1975. The concentration of Iodine-131 varied considerably on a time scale of weeks but was fairly stable in the course of a single day. The partition of Iodine-131 between the dried sludge and the liquid effluent was found to be reasonably constant during the sampling period. Knowledge of the concentration in these phases and the daily output of sludge and effluent let to be estimate of an annual discharge of over one Curie of Iodine-131. Circumstantial evidence linking this discharge to the practice of nuclear medicine in the area is considered strong, but an attempt to correlate variation in the effluent activity with actual nuclide use was inconclusive due, among other reasons, to an insufficient clinical data base. An analysis of possible exposure pathway indicated that negligible human exposure resulted from the Iodine-131 released primarily because the receiving body of water is a saline industrial waterway. A more extensive analysis would be in order for a similar plant discharging treated wastewaters into an inland water system.

A surveillance system for assessing health effects from hazardous exposures.

A statistical procedure for monitoring the health status of a community potentially exposed to a hazardous environment is presented. It utilizes two levels of investigation. Level I studies monitor routinely collected vital statistics and routes of community exposure whereas level II studies require additional data collection and are further distinguished by their design and duration. In a level I study, routine vital statistics for specified end points over a specified period of time are monitored, and the observed number of events is compared with the expected number of events for a given population. The statistical model used with this procedure employs a two-step decision rule based on the standardized mortality ratio for the study community. An "alert status" is invoked when the number of events exceeds a prescribed excess. An "action status" is indicated if the excess noted in the initial period persists or if the observed number of events in the initial period greatly exceeds expectation. Should an "action status" be justified, level II studies to determine the likely explanation for the significant excess are initiated. This could include the conduct of a "case-control" study using the exposure data available from monitoring the community.

Impact of noninvasive imaging on increased incidental detection of renal cell carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of non-invasive imaging, specifically ultrasound imaging and computed tomography, on the incidental detection of renal cell carcinoma during two consecutive time periods, one prior and one subsequent to the acquisition of imaging equipment. METHODS: All located patient charts (83% of 207) of renal cell carcinoma cases (n = 172) were reviewed, and categorized by presentation method as 'incidental' or 'nonincidental' cases, based on defined criteria. Clinical information was recorded, cases were staged, and survival estimates were calculated. RESULTS: More than a third of the 172 cases were categorized as incidentally detected, most of which (82.5%) were detected during the latter time period. Either ultrasound or CT imaging was credited with detecting over 80% of the incidentally detected tumors. CONCLUSION: Ultrasound and CT imaging have contributed to the incidental detection of renal cell carcinomas during the two time periods. Stage significantly predicted survival (p<0.001) in a Cox proportional hazard model that also controlled for presentation, sex, and age.