Predator-Prey Coevolution Drives Productivity-Richness Relationships in Planktonic Systems.

The relationship between environmental productivity and species richness often varies among empirical studies, and despite much research, simple explanations for this phenomenon remain elusive. We investigated how phytoplankton and zooplankton coevolution shapes productivity-richness relationships in both phytoplankton and zooplankton, using a simple nutrient-phytoplankton-zooplankton model that incorporates size-dependent metabolic rates summarized from empirical studies. The model allowed comparisons of evolved species richness across productivity levels and at different evolutionary times. Our results show that disruptive selection leads to evolutionary branching of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Both the time required for evolutionary branching and the number of evolved species in phytoplankton and zooplankton tend to increase with productivity, producing a transient unimodal or positive productivity-richness relationship but followed by a positive productivity-richness relationship for both groups over long enough evolutionary time. Our findings suggest that coevolution between phytoplankton and zooplankton can drive the two common forms (unimodal and positive) of productivity-richness relationships in nature.

Daytime warming lowers community temporal stability by reducing the abundance of dominant, stable species.

Daytime warming and nighttime warming have the potential to influence plant community structure and ecosystem functions. However, their impacts on ecological stability remain largely unexplored. We conducted an eight-year field experiment to compare the effects of daytime and nighttime warming on the temporal stability of a temperate steppe in northern China. Our results showed that the cover and stability of dominant species, stability of subordinate species, and compensatory dynamics among species strongly influenced community-level stability. However, daytime, but not nighttime, warming significantly reduced community temporal stability mainly through the reduction in the abundance of dominant, stable species. These findings demonstrate the differential effects of daytime and nighttime warming on community stability and emphasize the importance of understanding the changes of dominant species for accurately predicting community dynamics under climate warming.

Convergence and divergence in a long-term old-field succession: the importance of spatial scale and species abundance.

Whether plant communities in a given region converge towards a particular stable state during succession has long been debated, but rarely tested at a sufficiently long time scale. By analysing a 50-year continuous study of post-agricultural secondary succession in New Jersey, USA, we show that the extent of community convergence varies with the spatial scale and species abundance classes. At the larger field scale, abundance-based dissimilarities among communities decreased over time, indicating convergence of dominant species, whereas incidence-based dissimilarities showed little temporal tend, indicating no sign of convergence. In contrast, plots within each field diverged in both species composition and abundance. Abundance-based successional rates decreased over time, whereas rare species and herbaceous plants showed little change in temporal turnover rates. Initial abandonment conditions only influenced community structure early in succession. Overall, our findings provide strong evidence for scale and abundance dependence of stochastic and deterministic processes over old-field succession.

Different effects of invader-native phylogenetic relatedness on invasion success and impact: a meta-analysis of Darwin's naturalization hypothesis.

Darwin's naturalization hypothesis (DNH), which predicts that alien species more distantly related to native communities are more likely to naturalize, has received much recent attention. The mixed findings from empirical studies that have tested DNH, however, seem to defy generalizations. Using meta-analysis to synthesize results of existing studies, we show that the predictive power of DNH depends on both the invasion stage and the spatial scale of the studies. Alien species more closely related to natives tended to be less successful at the local scale, supporting DNH; invasion success, however, was unaffected by alien-native relatedness at the regional scale. On the other hand, alien species with stronger impacts on native communities tended to be more closely related to natives at the local scale, but less closely related to natives at the regional scale. These patterns are generally consistent across different ecosystems, taxa and investigation methods. Our results revealed the different effects of invader-native relatedness on invader success and impact, suggesting the operation of different mechanisms across invasion stages and spatial scales.

Predator identity influences metacommunity assembly.

Predation is among the most important biotic factors influencing natural communities, yet we have a rather rudimentary understanding of its role in modulating metacommunity assembly. We experimentally examined the effects of two different predators (a generalist and a specialist) on metacommunity assembly, using protist microcosm metacommunities that varied in predator identity, dispersal among local communities and the history of species colonization into local communities. Generalist predation resulted in reduced α diversity and increased ß diversity irrespective of dispersal, likely due to predation-induced stochastic extinction of different prey species in different local communities. Dispersal, however, induced source-sink dynamics in the presence of specialist predators, resulting in higher α diversity and marginally lower ß diversity. These results demonstrate the distinct effects of different predators on prey metacommunity assembly, emphasizing the need to explore the role of predator diet breadth in structuring metacommunities.

Resident-invader phylogenetic relatedness, not resident phylogenetic diversity, controls community invasibility.

A central goal of invasion biology is to elucidate mechanisms regulating community invasibility. Darwin's naturalization hypothesis, one of the oldest hypotheses in invasion biology, emphasizes the importance of phylogenetic relatedness (PR) between resident and invader species for predicting invasibility. Alternatively, a recent extension of the diversity-invasibility hypothesis predicts that phylogenetic diversity (PD) of resident communities influences invasibility. Neither of these hypotheses has undergone rigorous experimental testing, and the relative contributions of PR and PD to community invasibility are unknown, in part because their effects tend to be confounded with each other. Here we consider both perspectives together by independently manipulating PR and PD in laboratory bacterial assemblages. We found that, although invader abundance decreased significantly as PR increased, it was unaffected by PD. Likewise, we found that resident-invader functional similarity, not functional diversity of resident communities, was a significant predictor of invader abundance. Nevertheless, invader abundance was better predicted by PR than by functional similarity. These results highlight the importance of considering species evolutionary relationships, especially the PR between resident and invader species, for the prediction, prevention, and management of biological invasions.

Experimental demonstration of the importance of competition under disturbance.

Ecologists have long recognized the roles of competition and disturbance in shaping ecological communities, and the combinatorial effects of these two factors have been the subject of substantial ecological research. Nevertheless, it is still unclear whether competition remains as an important structuring force in habitats strongly influenced by disturbance. The conventional belief remains that the importance of competition decreases with increasing disturbance, but limited theory suggests otherwise. Using protist communities established in laboratory microcosms, we demonstrate that disturbance does not diminish the importance of competition. Interspecific competition significantly increased rates of species extinction over a broad disturbance gradient, and increasing disturbance intensities increased, rather than decreased, the tempo of competitive exclusion. This community-level pattern is linked to the species-level pattern that interspecific competition led to most frequent extinctions of each species at the highest level of disturbance that the species can tolerate. Consequently, despite a strong tradeoff between competitive ability and disturbance tolerance across the competing species, species diversity generally declined with disturbance. The consistent structuring role of competition throughout the disturbance gradient underscores the need to understand competitive interactions and their consequences even in highly disturbed habitats.

Species phylogenetic relatedness, priority effects, and ecosystem functioning.

Species immigration history can structure ecological communities through priority effects, which are often mediated by competition. As competition tends to be stronger between species with more similar niches, we hypothesize that species phylogenetic relatedness, under niche conservatism, may be a reasonable surrogate of niche similarity between species, and thus influence the strength of priority effects. We tested this hypothesis using a laboratory microcosm experiment in which we established bacterial species pools with different levels of phylogenetic relatedness and manipulated the immigration history of species from each pool into microcosms. Our results showed that strong priority effects, and hence multiple community states, only emerged for the species pool with the greatest phylogenetic relatedness. Community assembly also resulted in a significant positive relationship between bacterial phylogenetic diversity and ecosystem functions. Interestingly, these results emerged despite a lack of phylogenetic conservatism for most of the bacterial functional traits considered. Our results highlight the utility of phylogenetic information for understanding the structure and functioning of ecological communities, even when phylogenetically conserved functional traits are not identified or measured.

Surface interactions affect the toxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles toward Paramecium.

To better understand the potential impacts of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) in the ecosystem, we investigated the acute toxicity of seven different types of engineered metal oxide NPs against Paramecium multimicronucleatum, a ciliated protozoan, using the 48 h LC(50) (lethal concentration, 50%) test. Our results showed that the 48 h LC(50) values of these NPs to Paramecium ranged from 0.81 (Fe(2)O(3) NPs) to 9269 mg/L (Al(2)O(3) NPs); their toxicity to Paramecium increased as follows: Al(2)O(3) < TiO(2) < CeO(2) < ZnO < SiO(2) < CuO < Fe(2)O(3) NPs. On the basis of the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory, interfacial interactions between NPs and cell membrane were evaluated, and the magnitude of interaction energy barrier correlated well with the 48 h LC(50) data of NPs to Paramecium; this implies that metal oxide NPs with strong association with the cell surface might induce more severe cytotoxicity in unicellular organisms.

Phylogenetic limiting similarity and competitive exclusion.

One of the oldest ecological hypotheses, proposed by Darwin, suggests that the struggle for existence is stronger between more closely related species. Despite its long history, the validity of this phylogenetic limiting similarity hypothesis has rarely been examined. Here we provided a formal experimental test of the hypothesis using pairs of bacterivorous protist species in a multigenerational experiment. Consistent with the hypothesis, both the frequency and tempo of competitive exclusion, and the reduction in the abundance of inferior competitors, increased with increasing phylogenetic relatedness of the competing species. These results were linked to protist mouth size, a trait potentially related to resource use, exhibiting a significant phylogenetic signal. The likelihood of coexistence, however, was better predicted by phylogenetic relatedness than trait similarity of the competing species. Our results support phylogenetic relatedness as a useful predictor of the outcomes of competitive interactions in ecological communities.

An experimental test of Darwin's naturalization hypothesis.

One of the oldest ideas in invasion biology, known as Darwin's naturalization hypothesis, suggests that introduced species are more successful in communities in which their close relatives are absent. We conducted the first experimental test of this hypothesis in laboratory bacterial communities varying in phylogenetic relatedness between resident and invading species with and without a protist bacterivore. As predicted, invasion success increased with phylogenetic distance between the invading and the resident bacterial species in both the presence and the absence of protistan bacterivory. The frequency of successful invader establishment was best explained by average phylogenetic distance between the invader and all resident species, possibly indicating limitation by the availability of the unexploited niche (i.e., organic substances in the medium capable of supporting the invader growth); invader abundance was best explained by phylogenetic distance between the invader and its nearest resident relative, possibly indicating limitation by the availability of the unexploited optimal niche (i.e., the subset of organic substances supporting the best invader growth). These results were largely driven by one resident bacterium (a subspecies of Serratia marcescens) posting the strongest resistance to the alien bacterium (another subspecies of S. marcescens). Overall, our findings support phylogenetic relatedness as a useful predictor of species invasion success.

Different effects of species diversity on temporal stability in single-trophic and multitrophic communities.

The question of how species diversity affects ecological stability has long interested ecologists and yet remains largely unresolved. Historically, attempts to answer this question have been hampered by the presence of multiple potentially confounding stability concepts, confusion over responses at different levels of ecological organization, discrepancy between theoretical predictions, and, particularly, the paucity of empirical studies. Here we used meta-analyses to synthesize results of empirical studies published primarily in the past 2 decades on the relationship between species diversity and temporal stability. We show that the overall effect of increasing diversity was positive for community-level temporal stability but neutral for population-level temporal stability. There were, however, striking differences in the diversity-stability relationship between single- and multitrophic systems, with diversity stabilizing both population and community dynamics in multitrophic but not single-trophic communities. These patterns were broadly equivalent across experimental and observational studies as well as across terrestrial and aquatic studies. We discuss possible mechanisms for population stability to increase with diversity in multitrophic systems and for diversity to influence community-level stability in general. Overall, our results indicate that diversity can affect temporal stability, but the effects may critically depend on trophic complexity.

CeO2 nanoparticles alter the outcome of species interactions.

Despite considerable research on the environmental impacts of nanomaterials, we know little about how they influence interactions between species. Here, we investigated the acute (12 d) and chronic (64 d) toxicities of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) and bulk particles (0-200 mg/L) to three ciliated protist species (Loxocephalus sp., Paramecium aurelia, and Tetrahymena pyriformis) in single-, bi-, and multispecies microcosms. The results show that CeO2 NPs strongly affected the interactions between ciliated protozoan species. When exposed to the highest CeO2 NPs (200 mg/L), the intrinsic growth rates of Loxocephalus and Paramecium were significantly decreased by 18.87% and 88.27%, respectively, while their carrying capacities declined by more than 90%. However, CeO2 NP exposure made it difficult to predict outcomes of interspecific competition between species. At higher NP exposure (100 and 200 mg/L), competition led to the extinction of both species in the Loxocephalus and Paramecium microcosms that survived in the absence of competitors or CeO2 NPs. Further, the presence of potential competitors improved the survival of Loxocephalus to hundreds of individuals per milliliter in microcosms with Tetrahymena where Loxocephalus would otherwise not be able to tolerate high levels of NP exposure. This result could be attributed to weakened NP adsorption on the cell surface due to competitor-caused reduction of NP surface charge (from -18.52 to -25.17 mV) and intensified NP aggregation via phagocytosis of NPs by ciliate cells. Our results emphasize the need to explicitly consider species interactions for a more comprehensive understanding of the ecological consequences of NP exposure.

Fate of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles in an aquatic environment and their toxicity toward 14 ciliated protist species.

The potential environmental impacts of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) on aquatic organisms have remained largely unknown. Therefore, the laboratory study featured herein was performed to determine the fate of CeO2 NPs in an aquatic environment and their toxicity towards 14 different ciliated protist species at a specified population level. An investigation of 48 h aggregation kinetics in the Dryl's solution showed the CeO2 NPs to be relatively stable. The pH values in three test medium were too far away from PZC, which explained the stability of CeO2 NPs. CeO2 NPs generally elicited more toxicity with increasing NP concentration, following certain dose-response relationships. Nano-CeO2 resulted in greater toxicity in a particle state than when added as bulk material. LC50 values showed a negative correlation with the surface-to-volume ratio for these protists, suggesting that surface adsorption of CeO2 NPs might contribute to the observed toxicity. Additionally, acute toxic responses of 14 ciliated protist species to CeO2 NPs were not significantly phylogenetically conserved. The results of these observations provide a better insight into the potential risks of CeO2 NPs in an aquatic environment.