Infrequent Long-Range Dispersal and Evolution of a Top Terrestrial Arthropod Predator in the Sub-Antarctic.

AbstractThe sub-Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems survive on isolated oceanic islands in the path of circumpolar currents and winds that have raged for more than 30 million years and are shaped by climatic cycles that surpass the tolerance limits of many species. Surprisingly little is known about how these ecosystems assembled their native terrestrial fauna and how such processes have changed over time. Here, we demonstrate the patterns and timing of colonization and speciation in the largest and dominant arthropod predators in the eastern sub-Antarctic: spiders of the genus Myro. Our results indicate that this lineage originated from Australia before the Plio-Pleistocenic glacial cycles and underwent an adaptive radiation on the Crozet archipelago, from where one native species colonized multiple remote archipelagos via the Antarctic circumpolar current across thousands of kilometers. The results indicate limited natural connectivity between terrestrial macroinvertebrate faunas in the eastern sub-Antarctic and partial survival of repeated glaciations in the Plio-Pleistocene. Furthermore, our findings highlight that by integrating arthropod taxa from multiple continents, the climatically more stable volcanic Crozet archipelago played a critical role in the evolution and distribution of arthropod life in the sub-Antarctic.

Biological invasions are a population-level rather than a species-level phenomenon.

Biological invasions pose a rapidly expanding threat to the persistence, functioning and service provisioning of ecosystems globally, and to socio-economic interests. The stages of successful invasions are driven by the same mechanism that underlies adaptive changes across species in general-via natural selection on intraspecific variation in traits that influence survival and reproductive performance (i.e., fitness). Surprisingly, however, the rapid progress in the field of invasion science has resulted in a predominance of species-level approaches (such as deny lists), often irrespective of natural selection theory, local adaptation and other population-level processes that govern successful invasions. To address these issues, we analyse non-native species dynamics at the population level by employing a database of European freshwater macroinvertebrate time series, to investigate spreading speed, abundance dynamics and impact assessments among populations. Our findings reveal substantial variability in spreading speed and abundance trends within and between macroinvertebrate species across biogeographic regions, indicating that levels of invasiveness and impact differ markedly. Discrepancies and inconsistencies among species-level risk screenings and real population-level data were also identified, highlighting the inherent challenges in accurately assessing population-level effects through species-level assessments. In recognition of the importance of population-level assessments, we urge a shift in invasive species management frameworks, which should account for the dynamics of different populations and their environmental context. Adopting an adaptive, region-specific and population-focused approach is imperative, considering the diverse ecological contexts and varying degrees of susceptibility. Such an approach could improve and refine risk assessments while promoting mechanistic understandings of risks and impacts, thereby enabling the development of more effective conservation and management strategies.

The consequences of heatwaves for the reproductive success and physiology of the wingless sub-Antarctic fly Anatalanta aptera.

Sub-lethal effects of warming temperatures are an important, yet sometimes overlooked impact of climate change that may threaten the long-term survival of numerous species. This, like many other effects of climate change, is especially concerning for cold-adapted ectotherms living in rapidly warming polar regions. This study examines the effects of warmer temperatures on cold-adapted Diptera, using the long-lived sub-Antarctic sphaerocerid fly, Anatalanta aptera, as a focal species. We conducted two experiments to assess heat stress in adult flies, one varying the intensity of the heat stress (daily heating from 4 °C to 8 °C, 20 °C, or 24 °C) and one varying the frequency of heat stress exposure (heating from 4 °C to 12 °C every one, two, or three days) and examined consequences for reproductive success and metabolic responses. We found that more heat stress reduced reproductive output, but not timing of reproduction. Surprisingly, individuals sampled at different times during heat stress exposure were undifferentiable when all metabolite concentrations were analysed with redundancy analysis, however some individual metabolites did exhibit significant differences. Overall, our findings suggest that warmer temperatures in the sub-Antarctic may put this species at greater risk, especially when combined with other concurrent threats from biological invasions.

Advances in understanding Lepidoptera cold tolerance.

Ambient thermal conditions mediate insect growth, development, reproduction, survival, and distribution. With increasingly frequent and severe cold spells, it is critical to determine low-temperature performance and cold tolerances of ecologically and economically essential insect groups to predict their responses to global environmental change. This review covers the cold tolerance strategies of 49 species of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), focusing on species that are known as crop pests and crop storage facilities. We synthesize cold tolerance strategies of well-studied species within this order, finding that diapause is a distinctive mechanism that has independently evolved in different genera and families of Lepidoptera. However, the occurrence of diapause in each life stage is specific to the species, and in most studied lepidopteran species, the feeding stage (as larva) is the predominant overwintering stage. We also found that the onset of diapause and the improvement of cold tolerance are interdependent phenomena that typically occur together. Moreover, adopting a cold tolerance strategy is not an inherent, fixed trait and is greatly influenced by a species' geographic distribution and rearing conditions. This review further finds that freeze avoidance rather than freeze tolerance or chill susceptibility is the primary cold tolerance strategy among lepidopteran species. The cold hardiness of lepidopteran insects primarily depends on the accumulation of cryoprotectants and the depression of the supercooling point. We highlight variations in cold tolerance strategies and mechanisms among a subset of Lepidoptera, however, further work is needed to elucidate these strategies for the vast numbers of neglected species and populations to understand broad-scale responses to global change.

Recent advances in availability and synthesis of the economic costs of biological invasions.

Biological invasions are a global challenge that has received insufficient attention. Recently available cost syntheses have provided policy- and decision makers with reliable and up-to-date information on the economic impacts of biological invasions, aiming to motivate effective management. The resultant InvaCost database is now publicly and freely accessible and enables rapid extraction of monetary cost information. This has facilitated knowledge sharing, developed a more integrated and multidisciplinary network of researchers, and forged multidisciplinary collaborations among diverse organizations and stakeholders. Over 50 scientific publications so far have used the database and have provided detailed assessments of invasion costs across geographic, taxonomic, and spatiotemporal scales. These studies have provided important information that can guide future policy and legislative decisions on the management of biological invasions while simultaneously attracting public and media attention. We provide an overview of the improved availability, reliability, standardization, and defragmentation of monetary costs; discuss how this has enhanced invasion science as a discipline; and outline directions for future development.

Interspecific differences in thermal tolerance landscape explain aphid community abundance under climate change.

A single critical thermal limit is often used to explain and infer the impact of climate change on geographic range and population abundance. However, it has limited application in describing the temporal dynamic and cumulative impacts of extreme temperatures. Here, we used a thermal tolerance landscape approach to address the impacts of extreme thermal events on the survival of co-existing aphid species (Metopolophium dirhodum, Sitobion avenae and Rhopalosiphum padi). Specifically, we built the thermal death time (TDT) models based on detailed survival datasets of three aphid species with three ages across a broad range of stressful high (34-40 °C) and low (-3∼-11 °C) temperatures to compare the interspecific and developmental stage variations in thermal tolerance. Using these TDT parameters, we performed a thermal risk assessment by calculating the potential daily thermal injury accumulation associated with the regional temperature variations in three wheat-growing sites along a latitude gradient. Results showed that M. dirhodum was the most vulnerable to heat but more tolerant to low temperatures than R. padi and S. avenae. R. padi survived better at high temperatures than Sitobion avenae and M. dirhodum but was sensitive to cold. R. padi was estimated to accumulate higher cold injury than the other two species during winter, while M. dirhodum accrued more heat injury during summer. The warmer site had higher risks of heat injury and the cooler site had higher risks of cold injury along a latitude gradient. These results support recent field observations that the proportion of R. padi increases with the increased frequency of heat waves. We also found that young nymphs generally had a lower thermal tolerance than old nymphs or adults. Our results provide a useful dataset and method for modelling and predicting the consequence of climate change on the population dynamics and community structure of small insects.

The rising threat of climate change for arthropods from Earth's cold regions: Taxonomic rather than native status drives species sensitivity.

Polar and alpine regions are changing rapidly with global climate change. Yet, the impacts on biodiversity, especially on the invertebrate ectotherms which are dominant in these areas, remain poorly understood. Short-term extreme temperature events, which are growing in frequency, are expected to have profound impacts on high-latitude ectotherms, with native species being less resilient than their alien counterparts. Here, we examined in the laboratory the effects of short periodic exposures to thermal extremes on survival responses of seven native and two non-native invertebrates from the sub-Antarctic Islands. We found that survival of dipterans was significantly reduced under warming exposures, on average having median lethal times (LT50 ) of about 30 days in control conditions, which declined to about 20 days when exposed to daily short-term maxima of 24°C. Conversely, coleopterans were either not, or were less, affected by the climatic scenarios applied, with predicted LT50 as high as 65 days under the warmest condition (daily exposures at 28°C for 2 h). The native spider Myro kerguelensis was characterized by an intermediate sensitivity when subjected to short-term daily heat maxima. Our results unexpectedly revealed a taxonomic influence, with physiological sensitivity to heat differing between higher level taxa, but not between native and non-native species representing the same higher taxon. The survival of a non-native carabid beetle under the experimentally imposed conditions was very high, but similar to that of native beetles, while native and non-native flies also exhibited very similar sensitivity to warming. As dipterans are a major element of diversity of sub-Antarctic, Arctic and other cold ecosystems, such observations suggest that the increased occurrence of extreme, short-term, thermal events could lead to large-scale restructuring of key terrestrial ecosystem components both in ecosystems protected from and those exposed to the additional impacts of biological invasions.

Divergent metabolomic profiles of cold-exposed mature and immature females of tropical versus temperate Drosophila species.

Temperate species, contrary to their tropical counterparts, are exposed not only to thermally variable environments with low temperatures but also to long winters. Different selective pressures may have driven divergent physiological adaptations in closely related species with different biogeographic origins. To survive unfavourable winter conditions, Drosophila species in temperate areas generally undergo a period of reproductive dormancy, associated with a cold-induced cessation of oogenesis and metabolic reorganization. This work aims to compare cold tolerance and metabolic signatures of cold-exposed females exhibiting different reproductive maturity status (mature and immature females) of four Drosophila species from tropical vs. temperate origins. We expected that the capacity for delayed reproduction of immature females could result in the redirection of the energy-related metabolites to be utilized for surviving the cold season. To do so, we studied an array of 45 metabolites using quantitative target GC-MS profiling. Reproductively immature females of temperate species showed the lower CTmin and the faster chill coma recovery time (i.e. the most cold-tolerant group). Principal component analysis captured differences across species, but also between reproductive maturity states. Notably, temperate species exhibited significantly higher levels of glucose, alanine, and gluconolactone than tropical ones. As proline and glycerol showed higher abundances in immature females of temperate species compared to the levels exhibited by the rest of the groups, we reasoned that glucose and alanine could serve as intermediates in the synthesis of these compatible solutes. All in all, our findings suggest that cold-exposed females of temperate species accumulate energy-related and protective metabolites (e.g. glycerol and proline) while delaying reproduction, and that these metabolites are relevant to cold tolerance even at modest concentrations.

Hypomethylation of the aquatic invasive plant, Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala mimics the adaptive transition into the terrestrial morphotype.

Ongoing global changes affect ecosystems and open up new opportunities for biological invasion. The ability of invasive species to rapidly adapt to new environments represents a relevant model for studying short-term adaptation mechanisms. The aquatic invasive plant, Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala, is classified as harmful in European rivers. In French wet meadows, this species has shown a rapid transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments with emergence of two distinct morphotypes in 5 years. To understand the heritable mechanisms involved in adjustment to such a new environment, we investigate both genetic and epigenetic as possible sources of flexibility involved in this fast terrestrial transition. We found a low overall genetic differentiation between the two morphotypes arguing against the possibility that terrestrial morphotype emerged from a new adaptive genetic capacity. Artificial hypomethylation was induced on both morphotypes to assess the epigenetic hypothesis. We analyzed global DNA methylation, morphological changes, phytohormones and metabolite profiles of both morphotype responses in both aquatic and terrestrial conditions in shoot and root tissues. Hypomethylation significantly affected morphological variables, phytohormone levels and the amount of some metabolites. The effects of hypomethylation depended on morphotypes, conditions and plant tissues, which highlighted differences among the morphotypes and their plasticity. Using a correlative integrative approach, we showed that hypomethylation of the aquatic morphotype mimicked the characteristics of the terrestrial morphotype. Our data suggest that DNA methylation rather than a new adaptive genetic capacity is playing a key role in L. grandiflora subsp. hexapetala plasticity during its rapid aquatic to terrestrial transition.

Resolution of quantitative resistance to clubroot into QTL-specific metabolic modules.

Plant disease resistance is often under quantitative genetic control. Thus, in a given interaction, plant cellular responses to infection are influenced by resistance or susceptibility alleles at different loci. In this study, a genetic linkage analysis was used to address the complexity of the metabolic responses of Brassica napus roots to infection by Plasmodiophora brassicae. Metabolome profiling and pathogen quantification in a segregating progeny allowed a comparative mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) involved in resistance and in metabolic adjustments. Distinct metabolic modules were associated with each resistance QTL, suggesting the involvement of different underlying cellular mechanisms. This approach highlighted the possible role of gluconasturtiin and two unknown metabolites in the resistance conferred by two QTLs on chromosomes C03 and C09, respectively. Only two susceptibility biomarkers (glycine and glutathione) were simultaneously linked to the three main resistance QTLs, suggesting the central role of these compounds in the interaction. By contrast, several genotype-specific metabolic responses to infection were genetically unconnected to resistance or susceptibility. Likewise, variations of root sugar profiles, which might have influenced pathogen nutrition, were not found to be related to resistance QTLs. This work illustrates how genetic metabolomics can help to understand plant stress responses and their possible links with disease.

The distinct phenotypic signatures of dispersal and stress in an arthropod model: from physiology to life history.

Dispersing individuals are expected to encounter costs during transfer and in the novel environment, and may also have experienced stress in their natal patch. Given this, a non-random subset of the population should engage in dispersal and show divergent stress-related responses. This includes physiological shifts as expressed in the metabolome, which form a major part of responses to stress. We analyzed how metabolic profiles and life-history traits varied between dispersers and residents of the model two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae, and whether and how these syndromes varied with exposure to a stressful new host plant (tomato). Regardless of the effect of host plant, we found a physiological dispersal syndrome where, relative to residents, dispersers were characterized by lower leaf consumption and a lower concentration of several amino acids, indicating a potential dispersal-foraging trade-off. As a possible consequence of this lower food intake, dispersers also laid smaller eggs. Responses to tomato were consistent with this plant being a stressor for T.urticae, including reduced fecundity and reduced feeding. Tomato-exposed mites laid larger eggs, which we interpret as a plastic response to food stress, increasing survival to maturity. Contrary to what was expected from the costs of dispersal and from previous meta-population level studies, there was no interaction between dispersal status and host plant for any of the examined traits, meaning stress impacts were equally incurred by residents and dispersers. We thus provide novel insights into the processes shaping dispersal and the feedbacks on ecological dynamics in spatially structured populations.

Environmental Adaptations, Ecological Filtering, and Dispersal Central to Insect Invasions.

Insect invasions, the establishment and spread of nonnative insects in new regions, can have extensive economic and environmental consequences. Increased global connectivity accelerates rates of introductions, while climate change may decrease the barriers to invader species' spread. We follow an individual-level insect- and arachnid-centered perspective to assess how the process of invasion is influenced by phenotypic heterogeneity associated with dispersal and stress resistance, and their coupling, across the multiple steps of the invasion process. We also provide an overview and synthesis on the importance of environmental filters during the entire invasion process for the facilitation or inhibition of invasive insect population spread. Finally, we highlight important research gaps and the relevance and applicability of ongoing natural range expansions in the context of climate change to gain essential mechanistic insights into insect invasions.

Hormesis-like effect of mild larval crowding on thermotolerance in Drosophila flies.

Crowding is a complex stress that can affect organisms' physiology, especially through decreased food quality and accessibility. Here, we evaluated the effect of larval density on several biological traits of Drosophila melanogaster An increasing gradient, from 1 to 1000 eggs per milliliter of food, was used to characterize life-history traits variations. Crowded conditions resulted in striking decreases of fresh mass (up to 6-fold) and viability, as well as delayed development. Next, we assessed heat and cold tolerance in L3 larvae reared at three selected larval densities: low (LD, 5 eggs ml-1), medium (MD, 60 eggs ml-1) and high (HD, 300 eggs ml-1). LT50 values of MD and, to a lesser extent, HD larvae were repeatedly higher than those from LD larvae, under both heat and cold stress. We investigated potential physiological correlates associated with this density-dependent thermotolerance shift. No marked pattern could be drawn from the expression of stress-related genes. However, a metabolomic analysis differentiated the metabotypes of the three density levels, with potential candidates associated with this clustering (e.g. glucose 6-phosphate, GABA, sugars and polyols). Under HD, signs of oxidative stress were noted but not confirmed at the transcriptional level. Finally, urea, a common metabolic waste, was found to accumulate substantially in food from MD and HD larvae. When supplemented in food, urea stimulated cold tolerance but reduced heat tolerance in LD larvae. This study highlights that larval crowding is an important environmental parameter that induces drastic consequences on flies' physiology and can affect thermotolerance in a density-specific way.

Bacterial Shifts in Nutrient Solutions Flowing Through Biofilters Used in Tomato Soilless Culture.

In soilless culture, slow filtration is used to eliminate plant pathogenic microorganisms from nutrient solutions. The present study focused on the characterization and the potential functions of microbial communities colonizing the nutrient solutions recycled on slow filters during a whole cultivation season of 7 months in a tomato growing system. Bacterial microflora colonizing the solutions before and after they flew through the columns were studied. Two filters were amended with Pseudomonas putida (P-filter) or Bacillus cereus strains (B-filter), and a third filter was a control (C-filter). Biological activation of filter unit through bacterial amendment enhanced very significantly filter efficacy against plant potential pathogens Pythium spp. and Fusarium oxysporum. However, numerous bacteria (103-104 CFU/mL) were detected in the effluent solutions. The community-level physiological profiling indicated a temporal shift of bacterial microflora, and the metabolism of nutrient solutions originally oriented towards carbohydrates progressively shifted towards degradation of amino acids and carboxylic acids over the 7-month period of experiment. Single-strand conformation polymorphism fingerprinting profiles showed that a shift between bacterial communities colonizing influent and effluent solutions of slow filters occurred. In comparison with influent, 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that phylotype diversity was low in the effluent of P- and C-filters, but no reduction was observed in the effluent of the B-filter. Suppressive potential of solutions filtered on a natural filter (C-filter), where the proportion of Proteobacteria (α- and ß-) increased, whereas the proportion of uncultured candidate phyla rose in P- and B-filters, is discussed.

Multiscale Approach to Deciphering the Molecular Mechanisms Involved in the Direct and Intergenerational Effect of Ibuprofen on Mosquito Aedes aegypti.

The anti-inflammatory ibuprofen is a ubiquitous surface water contaminant. However, the chronic impact of this pharmaceutical on aquatic invertebrate populations remains poorly understood. In model insect Aedes aegypti, we investigated the intergenerational consequences of parental chronic exposure to an environmentally relevant concentration of ibuprofen. While exposed individuals did not show any phenotypic changes, their progeny showed accelerated development and an increased tolerance to starvation. In order to understand the mechanistic processes underpinning the direct and intergenerational impacts of ibuprofen, we combined transcriptomic, metabolomics, and hormone kinetics studies at several life stages in exposed individuals and their progeny. This integrative approach revealed moderate transcriptional changes in exposed larvae consistent with the pharmacological mode of action of ibuprofen. Parental exposure led to lower levels of several polar metabolites in progeny eggs and to major transcriptional changes in the following larval stage. These transcriptional changes, most likely driven by changes in the expression of numerous transcription factors and epigenetic regulators, led to ecdysone signaling and stress response potentiation. Overall, the present study illustrates the complexity of the molecular basis of the intergenerational pollutant response in insects and the importance of considering the entire life cycle of exposed organisms and of their progeny in order to fully understand the mode of action of pollutants and their impact on ecosystems.

Studies on chill coma recovery in the ladybird, Harmonia axyridis: Ontogenetic profile, effect of repeated cold exposures, and capacity to predict winter survival.

The harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis, is one of the most successful invasive insect species worldwide. We investigated whether (i) chill coma recovery time (CCRt) changes during the ontogenetic development of this species, (ii) CCRt varies in response to repeated cold shocks, and (iii) CCRt could be a good predictor of winter survival ability in adults. CCRt decreased during larval development, the lowest CCRt values were observed in teneral adults (one and four days old), and significantly higher values were observed for older adults (16 and 32 days old). Repeated cold shocks (two hours at -3 °C), interrupted by short (30 min) warm periods (22 °C) resulted in decreased CCRt after the second cold shock, probably depicting an acclimation response, but then CCRt increased with additional cold shocks, likely revealing the accumulation of chill injuries. The CCRt of pre-overwintering individuals was not correlated with their winter survival. This indicates that CCRt is not a reliable measure of cold tolerance in H. axyridis. However, this result could be partially affected by the experimental setup - the use of laboratory-reared individuals who experienced standardized conditions and thus the variability in CCRt of tested animals could be much lower than the variability present in nature. The substantial variation observed over the ontogenetic development of H. axyridis poses important methodological implications for future studies, as animals of the same stage/age should be compared with each other. The observed U-shaped response to repeated cold shocks indicates that the expectation of linearity between cold exposure and insect response is an oversimplification of real situations.

The responses of cucumber plants subjected to different salinity or fertilizer concentrations and reproductive success of Tetranychus urticae mites on these plants.

The plant stress hypothesis posits that a herbivore's reproductive success increases when it feeds on stressed plants, while the plant vigor hypothesis predicts that a herbivore preferentially feeds on more vigorous plants. We examined these opposing hypotheses by growing spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) on the leaves of stressed and healthy (vigorous) cucumber plants. Host plants were grown under controlled conditions at low, moderate, and high concentrations of NaCl (to induce salinity stress), at low, moderate, and high fertilizer concentrations (to support growth), and without these additions (control). The effects of these treatments were evaluated by measuring fresh and dry plant biomass, carotenoid and chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity, and concentrations of PO43-, K+, and Na+ in plant tissues. The addition of low concentrations of fertilizer increased dry mass, protein, and carotenoid content relative to controls, suggesting a beneficial effect on plants. The highest NaCl treatment (2560 mg L-1) resulted in increased Na+ and protein content relative to control plants, as well as reduced PO43-, K+, and chlorophyll levels and reduced catalase and ascorbate peroxidase enzyme activity levels. Analysis of life table data of T. urticae mites raised on leaves from the aforementioned plant groups showed the intrinsic rate of increase (r) for mites was 0.167 day-1 in control specimens, 0.125 day-1 for mites reared on plants treated with a moderate concentration of fertilizer (10 mL L-1), and was highest (0.241 day-1) on plants grown under moderate salinity conditions (1920 mg L-1 NaCl). Reproductive success of T. urticae did not differ on plants watered with a moderate concentration of NaCl or a high concentration of fertilizer. The moderately-stressed plants formed a favorable environment for the development and reproduction of spider mites, supporting the plant stress hypothesis.

Uncovering the benefits of fluctuating thermal regimes on cold tolerance of drosophila flies by combined metabolomic and lipidomic approach.

When exposed to constant low temperatures (CLTs), insects often suffer from cumulative physiological injuries that can severely compromise their fitness and survival. Yet, mortality can be considerably lowered when the cold stress period is interrupted by periodic warm interruption(s), referred to as fluctuating thermal regimes, FTRs. In this study, we have shown that FTRs strongly promoted cold tolerance of Drosophila melanogaster adults. We then assessed whether this marked phenotypic shift was associated with detectable physiological changes, such as synthesis of cryoprotectants and/or membrane remodeling. To test these hypotheses, we conducted two different time-series Omics analyzes in adult flies submitted to CLTs vs. FTRs: metabolomics (GC/MS) and lipidomics (LC/ESI/MS) targeting membrane phospholipids. We observed increasing levels in several polyhydric alcohols (arabitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol, glycerol), sugars (fructose, mannose) and amino acids (serine, alanine, glutamine) in flies under CLT. Prolonged exposure to low temperature was also associated with a marked deviation of metabolic homeostasis and warm interruptions as short as 2h were sufficient to periodically return the metabolic system to functionality. Lipidomics revealed an increased relative proportion of phosphatidylethanolamines and a shortening of fatty acyl chains in flies exposed to cold, likely to compensate for the ordering effect of low temperature on membranes. We found a remarkable correspondence in the time-course of changes between the metabolic and phospholipids networks, both suggesting a fast homeostatic regeneration during warm intervals under FTRs. In consequence, we suggest that periodic opportunities to restore system-wide homeostasis contribute to promote cold tolerance under FTRs.

Insects in fluctuating thermal environments.

All climate change scenarios predict an increase in both global temperature means and the magnitude of seasonal and diel temperature variation. The nonlinear relationship between temperature and biological processes means that fluctuating temperatures lead to physiological, life history, and ecological consequences for ectothermic insects that diverge from those predicted from constant temperatures. Fluctuating temperatures that remain within permissive temperature ranges generally improve performance. By contrast, those which extend to stressful temperatures may have either positive impacts, allowing repair of damage accrued during exposure to thermal extremes, or negative impacts from cumulative damage during successive exposures. We discuss the mechanisms underlying these differing effects. Fluctuating temperatures could be used to enhance or weaken insects in applied rearing programs, and any prediction of insect performance in the field-including models of climate change or population performance-must account for the effect of fluctuating temperatures.

Metabolic profiling of Lolium perenne shows functional integration of metabolic responses to diverse subtoxic conditions of chemical stress.

Plant communities are confronted with a great variety of environmental chemical stresses. Characterization of chemical stress in higher plants has often been focused on single or closely related stressors under acute exposure, or restricted to a selective number of molecular targets. In order to understand plant functioning under chemical stress conditions close to environmental pollution conditions, the C3 grass Lolium perenne was subjected to a panel of different chemical stressors (pesticide, pesticide degradation compound, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, and heavy metal) under conditions of seed-level or root-level subtoxic exposure. Physiological and metabolic profiling analysis on roots and shoots revealed that all of these subtoxic chemical stresses resulted in discrete physiological perturbations and complex metabolic shifts. These metabolic shifts involved stressor-specific effects, indicating multilevel mechanisms of action, such as the effects of glyphosate and its degradation product aminomethylphosphonic acid on quinate levels. They also involved major generic effects that linked all of the subtoxic chemical stresses with major modifications of nitrogen metabolism, especially affecting asparagine, and of photorespiration, especially affecting alanine and glycerate. Stress-related physiological effects and metabolic adjustments were shown to be integrated through a complex network of metabolic correlations converging on Asn, Leu, Ser, and glucose-6-phosphate, which could potentially be modulated by differential dynamics and interconversion of soluble sugars (sucrose, trehalose, fructose, and glucose). Underlying metabolic, regulatory, and signalling mechanisms linking these subtoxic chemical stresses with a generic impact on nitrogen metabolism and photorespiration are discussed in relation to carbohydrate and low-energy sensing.