Heparan sulphate and hyaluronic acid components of the glycocalyx do not play a role in flow-mediated dilation of the iliac in the anaesthetized pig.

The shear-stress sensor function of vascular glycocalyx heparan sulphate and hyaluronic acid was investigated in vivo by assessing flow-mediated dilation before and after their removal. Heparinase III exposure (100 mU·mL-1 for 20 min;n = 6) did not significantly affect flow-mediated dilation of the iliac, from 0.42 ± 0.08 mm (mean ± SEM) to 0.34 ± 0.07 mm after (P = 0.12; paired Student's t test) for a statistically similar increase in shear stress; 18.24 ± 4.2 N·m-2 for the control and 15.8 ± 3.6 N·m-2 for the heparinase III experiment (P = 0.18). Hyaluronidase exposure (0.14-1.4 mg·mL-1 for 20 min; n = 8) also did not significantly reduce flow-mediated dilation of the iliac, which averaged 0.39 ± 0.08 mm before and 0.38 ± 0.09 mm after (P = 0.11) for a statistically similar increase in shear stress; 11.90 ± 3.20 N·m-2 for the control and 9.8 ± 3.33 N·m-2 for the hyaluronidase experiment (P = 0.88). Removal of both heparan sulphate and hyaluronic acid was confirmed using immunohistochemistry. Neither the heparan sulphate nor the hyaluronic acid components of the glycocalyx mediate shear-stress-induced vasodilation in conduit arteries in vivo.

Dependence of smooth muscle tone upon pulsatility in the iliac artery of the anaesthetised pig.

The aim of the study was to examine features of the myogenic response of a conduit artery to the presence and absence of pulsatile pressure. The iliac arteries of 16 anaesthetised pigs (10 in control conditions, 6 under sympathetic blockade) were instrumented with flowmeter, sonomicrometry crystals for diameter measurement, a micro-tip manometer for pressure measurement and snares placed proximally and distally to the crystals to isolate a test segment from the remainder of the arterial system. When the snares were tightened to occlude the test segment, systemic arterial pressure remained constant. There was a large shift in the pressure-diameter relationship, in that there was a rapid decline in test segment pressure for the same diameter. This indicated arterial wall smooth muscle relaxation in response to removal of pulsatility of arterial pressure. The difference in mean pressure between pulsatility present and absent was significant (p < 0.0001, paired t test, n = 10). Before proximal and distal occlusion, test segment pressure was (mean ± SD) 92.26 ± 12.39 mmHg, whereas after distal and proximal occlusion at the same diameter, it was 42.34 ± 10.87 mmHg. We conclude that in the presence of pulsatile pressure, there is a large proportion of arterial wall smooth muscle tone related to stretch of the arterial wall during the cardiac cycle, indicating that, under normal pulsatile pressure conditions, much of the normal tone can be attributed to the pulsatile component of the arterial myogenic response.

The effect of ketamine and saffan on the beta-endorphin and ACTH response to hemorrhage in the minipig.

The endocrine response is an important component of the physiological response to blood loss. There is some variability in reported levels of certain hormones during hemorrhage such as the stress hormone adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). Therefore, the effect of two anesthetic agents, ketamine and saffan, on ACTH and beta-endorphin levels during hemorrhage was assessed in 12 minipigs. The animals were divided into two groups, group I saffan and group II ketamine (n=6). Pigs were subjected to a continuous fixed volume hemorrhage under one of the above anesthetics while spontaneously breathing. Blood pressure and heart rate responses were recorded together with beta-endorphin and ACTH levels both before and at 10, 20, 30, 40 min after the onset of bleeding. ACTH levels were higher in the ketamine-anesthetized pigs and rose significantly faster with falling blood pressure than ACTH measured in pigs under saffan anesthesia. In contrast, the hemorrhage induced beta-endorphin increase was not significantly different between the two anesthetic groups. These results indicate that choice of anesthetic agent is important when investigating the hormone response to hemorrhage and may account for the variable hormone levels in the published literature to date.

The arteriolar glycocalyx plays a role in the regulation of blood flow in the iliac of the anaesthetised pig.

The role of the glycocalyx of arterial resistance vessels in regulating blood flow in vivo is not fully understood. Therefore, the effect of glycocalyx damage using two separate compounds, hyaluronidase and N-Formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP), was evaluated in the iliac artery vascular bed of the anaesthetised pig. Blood flow and pressure were measured in the iliac, an adjustable snare was applied to the iliac above the pressure and flow measurement site to induce step decreases (3 occlusions at 3-4 min intervals were performed for each infusion) in blood flow, and hence iliac pressure, and vascular conductance (flow/pressure) was calculated. Saline, hyaluronidase (14 and 28 microg/ml/min), and fMLP (1 microM/min) were infused separately, downstream of the adjustable snare and their effect on arterial conductance assessed. Hyaluronidase at the higher infusion rate and fMLP both caused a reduction in arterial conductance, and hence an increase in blood flow resistance. In conclusion, the results show that glycocalyx damage causes an increase in resistance to blood flow in the iliac artery vascular bed.

Immediate direct peripheral vasoconstriction in response to hyperinsulinemia and metformin in the anesthetized pig.

Elevated levels of insulin have been reported to induce both an arterial vasodilation mediated by nitric oxide (NO), and vasoconstriction mediated by endothelin and reactive oxygen radicals. Metformin, used to control blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes, has also been shown to cause NO-mediated dilation of conduit arteries. It is possible that these contradictory vascular effects are due to a non-direct action on arteries. Therefore, the direct effect of high levels of insulin and metformin infusion on resistance artery diameter was evaluated. Experiments were carried out on the anesthetized pig; blood flow and pressure were measured in the iliac artery. An adjustable snare was applied to the iliac above the pressure and flow measurement site to induce step decreases (3-4 occlusions at 5 min intervals were performed for each infusion) in blood flow, and hence iliac pressure, and the conductance (deltaflow / deltapressure) calculated. Saline, insulin (20 and 40 mUSP/l/min), and metformin (1 microg/ml/min) were infused separately downstream of the adjustable snare and their effect on arterial conductance assessed. Insulin at both infusion rates and metformin caused a significant reduction in peripheral vascular conductance. In conclusion, hyperinsulinemia and metformin infusion constrict resistance arterial vessels in vivo.

Responses of iliac conduit artery and hindlimb resistance vessels to luminal hyperfructosemia in the anaesthetized pig.

AIMS: High fructose levels are found in diabetes mellitus, associated with high corn syrup diets, and have been claimed to cause hypertension. As the direct effects on conduit and resistance arteries have not been previously reported, we measured these in vivo in the anaesthetized pig with instrumented iliac arteries. METHODS: Experiments were performed on the iliac artery preparation in the anaesthetized pig: blood flow, diameter and pressure were measured in the iliac. RESULTS: The change in diameter of an occluded iliac artery segment filled with hyperfructosemic (15 µm) blood was 89.5 ± 22.1 µm (mean ± SE), contrasted with 7.7 ± 13.06 µm control (P = 0.005, paired t-test, n = 6). There was no significant difference when compared with blood containing both hyperfructosemic blood and the nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (250 µg mL(-1)). Step changes in pressure and flow were achieved by progressive arterial stenosis during control saline and 15 µm min(-1) fructose downstream intra-arterial infusions. Linear regression of the step changes in blood pressure versus the instantaneous step changes in blood flow showed a statistically significant decrease in slope of the conductance (P < 0.001, analysis of covariance), indicating an increase in instantaneous peripheral vascular resistance. Peripheral autoregulation and conduit artery shear-stress-mediated dilatation were not significantly altered. CONCLUSION: An elevated level of fructose caused dilatation of a conduit artery but constriction of resistance vessels. The latter effect could account, if maintained long-term, for the hypertension claimed to be due to hyperfuctosemia.

Dilatation in the femoral vascular bed does not cause retrograde relaxation of the iliac artery in the anaesthetized pig.

AIM: We tested the hypothesis that dilatation of a feeding artery may be elicited by transmission of a signal through the tissue of the arterial wall from a vasodilated peripheral vascular bed. METHODS: In eight pentobarbital anaesthetized pigs, acetylcholine (ACh, an endothelium-dependent vasodilator) was injected intra-arterially above (upstream) and below (downstream) a test segment of the left iliac artery, the diameter of which was measured continuously by sonomicrometry. RESULTS: Under control conditions, ACh injections upstream and downstream of the test segment caused dilatation. Downstream injection dilated the peripheral arterioles, resulting in increased blood flow and proximal dilatation. This is a shear stress, nitric oxide (NO)-dependent response. The experiment was then repeated after applying a stenosis to prevent the increased flow caused by downstream injection of ACh; the stenosis was placed either above the site of diameter measurement to allow retrograde conduction, or below that site to prevent distally injected ACh reaching the measurement site. Under these conditions, downstream injection of ACh had a minimal effect on the shear stress of the test segment with no increase in test segment diameter. This was not due to endothelial damage or dysfunction as injection of ACh upstream still caused a large increase in test segment diameter. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that dilatation of the feeding artery of a vasodilated bed is caused by increased shear stress within the feeding artery and not via a signal transmitted through the arterial wall from below.

Differential inhibition by hyperglycaemia of shear stress- but not acetylcholine-mediated dilatation in the iliac artery of the anaesthetized pig.

Clinical hyperglycaemia affects vascular endothelial function, but the effect on shear stress-induced arterial dilatation has not yet been established. We hypothesized that hyperglycaemia would inhibit this response via impaired glycocalyx mechanotransduction. Experiments were carried out in the anaesthetized pig in which pressure, blood flow and diameter of the left iliac artery were measured at two sites: proximal (d1) and distal (d2). Infusion of glucose, sufficient to raise blood glucose to 16-30 mm along the whole length of the artery, attenuated the shear stress-dependent dilatation in both sections of the artery with preservation of the responses to acetylcholine. The distal site was then isolated using snares and the lumen exposed to blood containing 25-35 mm glucose for 20 min. In the control situation, after exposure of both sections to normoglycaemia (5.7 mm glucose), both sections of artery showed increases in diameter in response to shear stress and acetylcholine. Hyperglycaemia attenuated the shear stress-dependent dilatation in the distal section only (P < 0.25), but not the response to acetylcholine. It is concluded from these results that the hyperglycaemia-impaired dilatation is consistent with loss of mechanotransducing properties of the endothelial glycocalyx by hyperglycaemia. These findings offer a possible explanation for the increased incidence of vascular disease in diabetic patients.