High selective photocatalytic CO2 conversion into liquid solar fuel over a cobalt porphyrin-based metal-organic framework.

In the present study, porphyrin-based metal-organic framework (Co/PMOF) was synthesized and characterized by different spectra analyses. The photoluminescence properties of porphyrin and Co/PMOF revealed that the photoluminescence of Co/PMOF was quenched compared to the porphyrin, indicating that the lifetime of photo-generated charge carriers in Co/PMOF is longer than porphyrin. The prepared Co/PMOF was applied as an efficient photocatalyst for CO2 photoconversion to formate in the presence of triethanolamine (TEOA) as a sacrificial agent under visible-light irradiation. The photoreaction results showed that 23.21 µmol HCOO- was produced over Co/PMOF during the 6 h photocatalytic reaction under visible illumination, showing much better activity than the porphyrin, 4.56 µmol HCOO-. No other products were detected, suggesting that this reaction over Co/PMOF has high selectivity. Co/PMOF reusability and stability were examined through recycling tests and there were no remarkable losses of photoactivity even after three cycles of photoreaction. Moreover, FTIR measurement and UV-Vis spectra demonstrated no notable changes in Co/PMOF structure. As a result, superior photocatalytic behavior of Co/PMOF was implied for CO2 photoreduction which highlights the great potential of assembly porphyrin and cobalt into MOFs for CO2 photoreduction.

Population based MRI and DTI templates of the adult ferret brain and tools for voxelwise analysis.

Non-invasive imaging has the potential to play a crucial role in the characterization and translation of experimental animal models to investigate human brain development and disorders, especially when employed to study animal models that more accurately represent features of human neuroanatomy. The purpose of this study was to build and make available MRI and DTI templates and analysis tools for the ferret brain as the ferret is a well-suited species for pre-clinical MRI studies with folded cortical surface, relatively high white matter volume and body dimensions that allow imaging with pre-clinical MRI scanners. Four ferret brain templates were built in this study - in-vivo MRI and DTI and ex-vivo MRI and DTI - using brain images across many ferrets and region of interest (ROI) masks corresponding to established ferret neuroanatomy were generated by semi-automatic and manual segmentation. The templates and ROI masks were used to create a web-based ferret brain viewing software for browsing the MRI and DTI volumes with annotations based on the ROI masks. A second objective of this study was to provide a careful description of the imaging methods used for acquisition, processing, registration and template building and to demonstrate several voxelwise analysis methods including Jacobian analysis of morphometry differences between the female and male brain and bias-free identification of DTI abnormalities in an injured ferret brain. The templates, tools and methodological optimization presented in this study are intended to advance non-invasive imaging approaches for human-similar animal species that will enable the use of pre-clinical MRI studies for understanding and treating brain disorders.

[Supraorbital approach to treat a fronto-orbital fracture with pneumocephaly, a minimal invasive technique]. / Abord supraorbitaire pour traiter une fracture frontale avec pneumocéphalie, une technique peu invasive.

We describe a supraorbital approach through an upper eyebrow skin incision to treat a fronto-orbital fracture with pneumocephaly in a 84-year-old cardiac patient. The clinical and cosmetic results are excellent. This case is illustrated by pre- and postoperative CT-scan and MRI as well as pictures showing the minimal invasive technique.

Age of menarche as a risk factor for gynecological cancer in Iranian women and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: This study analyzed the age of menarche in different regions of Iran with a review of previous studies and examined the changes of menarche age over the past years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A descriptive and cross-sectional study which was conducted in 11 different provinces of Iran with a sample size of 26,831. The year of birth and age of menarche in the population obtained through health records which were available in the health centers collected and also questioning the subjects under investigation. RESULTS: The highest average age of 14.6 years obtained from Kermanshah province and the lowest was from Kerman with 12.98 years. The lowest average was observed with age group under 30 (13.22) and the highest age of menarche (13.53) belonged to the 30 to 40 year age group. The average age of menarche in this study was 13.24 years. DISCUSSION: A declining trend of about two to four months for each ten years has been observed in girls born in 1920s to 1940s and then an upward trend of about nine months for ten years in subjects born in 1950s and 1960s. The stressful condition of war and poor economic and social conditions of Iranian people can justify this upward leap. However in women under 30 years of age, the menarche age showed a rapid declining trend to 13.22 years. CONCLUSION: Obtaining accurate information and knowing all the factors affecting this issue can be very useful in planning the public health in women and health educational programs.

New results regarding trends in Iranian women's health and a comparison with WHO data.

Half of the world's population consists of women, who play important roles in cultural formation and education, maintain and promote households and their health, and consequently affect the community. In a general sense, women's health may be an important cornerstone for the formation of a healthy community. In developing countries, 67% of women work in the agriculture sector and produce 55% of the food products throughout the world. In East Asian countries, which have the highest level of cloth and furniture export, 74% of workers are women. Due to these considerations, we assessed women's health indicators in Iran. We reviewed health information from national health reports, including two national health surveys conducted in 1991 and 2009 with a sample size of 1/1,000 of the Iranian population, the 2000 Iran Demographic and Health Survey, and all published indices that were calculated in 2006 or later. The most important finding was that the maternal mortality rate decreased from 54 per 100,000 live births in 1991 to 37.4 per 100,000 live births in 1997. It decreased further to 24.7 per 100,000 live births in 2006. The Millennium Development Goal is 18-22 per 100,000 live births in 2015.

Rate of use of contraceptive methods and risk factors in Tehran, the capital of Iran, in 2010 compared to other cities and regions.

BACKGROUND: Unwanted pregnancies and deaths from abortion cost the lives of 500 women daily. This study was designed to determine the rate of use of contraceptive methods and the risks. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2010 in Tehran, Iran. Total sample size was 304 participants who all filled out a questionnaire which had two parts. Data were analyzed by SPSS. FINDINGS: The results showed that age (p = 0.003), employment status (p = 0.001), number of children (p = 0.001), and marriage (p = 0.01), had a significant relation with type of contraceptive method while, education did not correlate with contraceptive methods. DISCUSSION: New and often younger couples with no experience about different contraceptive methods may tend to use natural methods because of their lack of knowledge of other techniques. Use of modern contraceptives early in marriage or even before marriage could be a good strategy.

Deferasirox, an Iron-Chelating Agent, Improves Testicular Morphometric and Sperm Functional Parameters in a Rat Model of Varicocele.

Varicocele is characterized by testicular dysfunction that originates from hyperthermia and hypoxia, leading to defects in testicular tissue and altered spermatozoa structure and function. The varicocele testis is characterized by the presence of intracellular iron deposits that contribute to the associated oxidative stress. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that administration of an iron-chelating agent, such as deferasirox (DFX), could potentially mitigate the consequences of varicocele on testicular tissue and spermatozoa. Using a well-established rat model of varicocele (VCL), we show that treatment with DFX partially improved the structure and function of the testis and spermatozoa. In particular, sperm motility was markedly restored whereas abnormal sperm morphology was only partially improved. No significant improvement in sperm count was observed that could be associated with the proapoptotic response observed following iron chelation treatment. No reduction in oxidative damage to spermatozoa was observed since lipid peroxidation and DNA integrity were not modified. This was suggested to be a result of increased oxidative stress. Finally, we also saw no indication of attenuation of the endoplasmic reticulum/unfolded protein (ER/UPR) stress response that we recently found associated with the VCL testis in rats.

Alterations in resting-state network dynamics along the Alzheimer's disease continuum.

Human brain activity is intrinsically organized into resting-state networks (RSNs) that transiently activate or deactivate at the sub-second timescale. Few neuroimaging studies have addressed how Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects these fast temporal brain dynamics, and how they relate to the cognitive, structural and metabolic abnormalities characterizing AD. We aimed at closing this gap by investigating both brain structure and function using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and hybrid positron emission tomography-magnetic resonance (PET/MR) in 10 healthy elders, 10 patients with subjective cognitive decline (SCD), 10 patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and 10 patients with typical Alzheimer's disease with dementia (AD). The fast activation/deactivation state dynamics of RSNs were assessed using hidden Markov modeling (HMM) of power envelope fluctuations at rest measured with MEG. Correlations were sought between temporal properties of HMM states and participants' cognitive test scores, whole hippocampal grey matter volume and regional brain glucose metabolism. The posterior default-mode network (DMN) was less often activated and for shorter durations in AD patients than matched healthy elders. No significant difference was found in patients with SCD or aMCI. The time spent by participants in the activated posterior DMN state did not correlate significantly with cognitive scores, nor with the whole hippocampal volume. However, it correlated positively with the regional glucose consumption in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). AD patients present alterations of posterior DMN power activation dynamics at rest that identify an additional electrophysiological correlate of AD-related synaptic and neural dysfunction. The right DLPFC may play a causal role in the activation of the posterior DMN, possibly linked to the occurrence of mind wandering episodes. As such, these data might suggest a neural correlate of the decrease in mind wandering episodes reported in pathological aging.

Tenascin-C expression relates to clinicopathological features in pilocytic and diffuse astrocytomas.

AIMS: Tenascin-C (TN-C) is an extracellular matrix brain glycoprotein for which conflicting in vitro and in vivo results are reported in the literature dealing with its involvement in astrocytoma aggressiveness, in particular astrocytoma invasion. In view of these conflicting results and the lack of data available on low-grade astrocytomas, the present study focuses on pilocytic World Health Organization (WHO) grade I, and diffuse WHO grade II astrocytomas, that is, two histological entities associated with very different invasive abilities. METHODS: Using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry, we analysed the TN-C expression in normal brain tissue as well as in a series of 54 pilocytic and 53 grade II astrocytomas. CONCLUSIONS: Our data on normal brain showed that while TN-C is largely expressed in supratentorial white matter, it was largely absent in infratentorial white matter. Paralleling these observations, we showed that TN-C expression in low-grade astrocytomas similarly varies according to tumour site. Cox regression analysis evidenced that TN-C provided an independent prognostic value which is enhanced in the case of grade II astrocytomas for which positive TN-C expression is associated with a higher risk of recurrence. We also analysed TN-C expression specifically in vascular areas of low-grade astrocytomas without demonstrating any prognostic value for this additional feature. RESULTS: Similarly to normal brain, low-grade astrocytomas exhibit variations in TN-C expression with site, and this expression is associated with an independent prognostic value in terms of recurrence.

Sixty-four-row multisection CT angiography for detection and evaluation of ruptured intracranial aneurysms: interobserver and intertechnique reproducibility.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purpose of this work was to assess intertechnique and interobserver reproducibility of 64-row multisection CT angiography (CTA) used to detect and evaluate intracranial aneurysms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From October 2005 to November 2006, 54 consecutive patients with nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) underwent both CTA and digital substraction angiography (DSA). Four radiologists independently reviewed CT images, and 2 other radiologists reviewed DSA images. Aneurysm diameter (D), neck width (N), and the presence of a branch arising from the sac were assessed. RESULTS: DSA revealed 67 aneurysms in 48 patients and no aneurysm in 6 patients. Mean sensitivity and specificity of CTA for the detection of intracranial aneurysms were, respectively, 94% and 90.2%. For aneurysms less than 3 mm, CTA had a mean sensitivity of 70.4%. Intertechnique and interobserver agreements were good for the detection of aneurysms (mean kappa = 0.673 and 0.732, respectively) and for the measurement of their necks (mean kappa = 0.753 and 0.779, respectively). Intertechnique and interobserver agreements were excellent for the measurement of aneurysm diameters (mean kappa = 0.847 and 0.876, respectively). In addition, CTA was accurate in determining the N/D ratio of aneurysms and adjacent arterial branches. However, the N/D ratio was overestimated by all of the readers at CTA. CONCLUSION: Sixty-four-row multisection CTA is an imaging method with a good interobserver reproducibility and a high sensitivity and specificity for the detection and the morphologic evaluation of ruptured intracranial aneurysms. It may be used as an alternative to DSA as a first-intention imaging technique in patients with SAH.

Stereotactic comparison among cerebral blood volume, methionine uptake, and histopathology in brain glioma.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Vascularity, metabolism, and histologic grade are related in gliomas but the exact determinants of these relationships are not fully defined. We used image coregistration and stereotactic biopsies to regionally compare cerebral blood volume (CBV) and (11)C-methionine (MET) uptake measurements in brain gliomas and to assess their relationship by histopathologic examination. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fourteen patients with brain gliomas underwent MR imaging, including dynamic susceptibility contrast-enhanced MR and positron-emission tomography (PET) using MET acquired in identical stereotactic conditions before biopsy. MR-based CBV maps were calculated and both CBV maps and PET images were coregistered to anatomic images. Sixty-five biopsy samples were obtained on trajectories targeted toward high MET uptake area. The following histopathologic features were semiquantified in each sample: mitotic activity, endothelial proliferation, cellular pleomorphism, and tumor necrosis. CBV and MET uptake values were measured in the biopsy area and normalized to contralateral white matter. CBV ratios were compared with MET uptake ratios, and both measurements were compared with histologic features of each sample. RESULTS: CBV ratios ranged from 0.08 to 10.24 (median = 1.73), and MET uptake ratios ranged from 0.30 to 4.91 (median = 1.67). There was a positive correlation between CBV ratios and MET uptake ratios (r = 0.65, P < .001). Both CBV and MET uptake ratios were found to be significantly related to endothelial proliferation and mitotic activity (P < .01). CONCLUSION: Within glial tumors, there is a local relationship between CBV and MET uptake measurements. Both provide indices of focal malignant activity.

Immediate intracranial aneurysm occlusion after embolization with detachable coils: a comparison between MR angiography and intra-arterial digital subtraction angiography.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: To prospectively compare the effectiveness of time-of-flight (TOF) and contrast-enhanced (CE) MR angiography (MRA) with that of digital subtraction angiography (DSA) to assess immediate intracranial aneurysm occlusion after selective embolization. METHODS: From August 2006 to March 2007, 33 consecutive patients with 40 aneurysms were included. Thirty aneurysms were treated by endosaccular coils (group 1). Ten aneurysms were treated by stent placement and subsequent endosaccular coils (group 2). All patients underwent MRA within 24 h after treatment. One senior and one fellow radiologist independently reviewed the MR images, and another senior radiologist reviewed the DSA images. RESULTS: DSA showed 22 complete occlusions, ten residual necks, and eight residual aneurysms. For residual neck detection, there was no difference between TOF-MRA (sensitivity, 80%-80%; specificity, 93.8%-100%, according to both readers) and CE-MRA (sensitivity, 80%-80%; specificity, 100%). For residual aneurysm detection, there was a significant difference between TOF-MRA (sensitivity, 50%-62.5%; specificity, 100%) and CE-MRA (sensitivity and specificity, 100%, according to both readers). In group 2, a residual aneurysm was missed by both readers with TOF-MRA in the same 3 aneurysms. Moreover, both readers judged CE-MRA better than TOF-MRA to assess parent-artery patency in group 2. Interobserver agreement was excellent for TOF-MRA and CE-MRA (kappa=0.9 and 1, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In our study, both TOF-MRA and CE-MRA had high and comparable sensitivity and specificity for the assessment of immediate aneurysm occlusion after selective embolization, except when a stent-assisted technique was used. In such cases, CE-MRA was superior to TOF-MRA to evaluate aneurysm occlusion and parent-artery patency.

[Contribution of temozolomide chemotherapy for intramedullary grade II spinal cord astrocytomas in adults: Our experience]. / Place de la chimiothérapie de type témozolomide pour les astrocytomes intramédullaires de grade II de l'adulte : notre expérience.

INTRODUCTION: Grade II intramedullary astrocytomas are rare tumors. Despite a well-defined role of adjuvant temozolomide chemotherapy for brain gliomas, the contribution of this therapy for intramedullary gliomas is not yet clearly defined. METHOD: We retrospectively analyzed the data of 5 adult patients treated with temozolomide between 2008 and 2015 for a grade II intramedullary astrocytoma with progression after surgery. RESULTS: Five patients from 19 to 70 years of age (median, 37years) underwent a second surgery for the progression of a grade II intramedullary astrocytoma (median progression-free survival 26months [8-90]). All tumors remained grade II. Due to a second clinical or/and radiological tumor progression, the patients were treated with temozolomide after a 37months median progression-free survival (5-66). All patients received at minimum 12 cycles (mean 14 ± 5; range 12-24) of temozolomide (150-200mg/m2/day, 5days/28days). All patients were alive after a 10-year median follow-up after diagnosis (6-13). All patients were able to walk except one, who was previously in McCormick autonomy grade IV before chemotherapy. The McCormick autonomy rating after temozolomide was stable for 4 patients and improved for 1 patient. The treatment was delayed once for hematological toxicity. CONCLUSION: Temozolomide stabilized all 5 patients without any major toxicity. Based on this experience that needs to be confirmed, we consider that temozolomide should be envisaged within the therapeutic arsenal for progressive intramedullary grade II astrocytomas.

Defining an Analytic Framework to Evaluate Quantitative MRI Markers of Traumatic Axonal Injury: Preliminary Results in a Mouse Closed Head Injury Model.

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a hallmark of traumatic brain injury (TBI) pathology. Recently, the Closed Head Injury Model of Engineered Rotational Acceleration (CHIMERA) was developed to generate an experimental model of DAI in a mouse. The characterization of DAI using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; diffusion tensor imaging, DTI) may provide a useful set of outcome measures for preclinical and clinical studies. The objective of this study was to identify the complex neurobiological underpinnings of DTI features following DAI using a comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of DTI and histopathology in the CHIMERA mouse model. A consistent neuroanatomical pattern of pathology in specific white matter tracts was identified across ex vivo DTI maps and photomicrographs of histology. These observations were confirmed by voxelwise and regional analysis of DTI maps, demonstrating reduced fractional anisotropy (FA) in distinct regions such as the optic tract. Similar regions were identified by quantitative histology and exhibited axonal damage as well as robust gliosis. Additional analysis using a machine-learning algorithm was performed to identify regions and metrics important for injury classification in a manner free from potential user bias. This analysis found that diffusion metrics were able to identify injured brains almost with the same degree of accuracy as the histology metrics. Good agreement between regions detected as abnormal by histology and MRI was also found. The findings of this work elucidate the complexity of cellular changes that give rise to imaging abnormalities and provide a comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of the relative importance of DTI and histological measures to detect brain injury.

Application of buccal fat pad-derived stem cells in combination with autogenous iliac bone graft in the treatment of maxillomandibular atrophy: a preliminary human study.

Stem cell therapy for the treatment of bone defects is an alternative or adjunct to autologous bone grafting. This study assessed the efficacy of buccal fat pad-derived stem cells (BFPSCs) with iliac bone block grafting for the treatment of extensive human alveolar ridge defects. Eight patients with extensive jaw atrophy were selected for this study. The jaws were reconstructed with non-vascularized anterior iliac crest bone blocks. Gaps between the blocks were filled with freeze-dried bone granules and covered with a collagen membrane. In the test group (n=4), these granules were seeded with BFPSCs. Cone beam computed tomography scans were used to assess the amount of new bone formed at six sites in each patient. Trephine biopsies of 2-mm were also taken from the graft site during implant placement for histomorphometric analysis. The mean bone width change at the graft site was greater in the test group than in the control group (3.94±1.62mm vs. 3.01±0.89mm). New bone formation was 65.32% in the test group versus 49.21% in the control group. The application of BFPSCs in conjunction with iliac bone block grafts may increase the amount of new bone formation and decrease secondary bone resorption in extensively atrophic jaws.

Stereologic assessment of the total cortical volume occupied by amyloid deposits and its relationship with cognitive status in aging and Alzheimer's disease.

Although the presence of amyloid deposits is required to establish the neuropathologic diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, from a clinical point of view, a direct contribution of these cerebral lesions to cognitive deficits is still controversial. The development and standardization of quantitative and accurate biochemical and neuropathologic methods may be critical to improve the postmortem diagnosis and clinicopathologic correlations. Here, we used a point counting method, based on the Cavalieri principle, to estimate the volume occupied by amyloid deposits in a discrete region of the prefrontal cortex and in the hippocampal formation, in brains from patients with cognitive status ranging from normal to severely demented. We demonstrate that the assessment of the total volume occupied by the amyloid deposits in the entorhinal cortex and subiculum can be considered an effective predictor of dementia severity. We also reveal the existence of a high degree of regional and interindividual heterogeneity in amyloid distribution and relative volume. Our data suggest that even though a correlation was observed between the stereologic point counting method and a non-stereologic random field thresholding approach, in most cases non-stereologic methods may not provide adequate samples of the tissue and may lead to unreliable estimates of amyloid burden due to the inhomogeneous distribution of amyloid in the cerebral cortex and the large variability among brains.

A murine model for the immunotherapy of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

A murine model for the immunotherapy of head and neck cancer was established. The AT-84 tumor, a spontaneously arising oral squamous cell tumor of C3H mice, was evaluated for susceptibility to lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells. In vitro chromium-release assays demonstrated that AT-84 is sensitive to LAK-cell-mediated killing. Furthermore, in vivo experiments employing a lung metastasis model demonstrated a 50% reduction in the number of metastases in LAK-cell-treated mice as compared with untreated controls (P2 = .001). These experiments showed that AT-84 is an appropriate model for the immunotherapy of head and neck cancer. This model should be invaluable for further study of the mechanisms involved in immune-mediated therapy of head and neck cancer.

Generation of therapeutic T cells from draining lymph nodes in a murine model of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

OBJECTIVES: To study immunotherapy for advanced head and neck squamous cell carcinoma using AT-84, a spontaneously arising murine tumor. We examined the draining lymph nodes (DLNs) for generation of potential therapeutic lymphocytes in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. DESIGN: Experimental randomized control trial. INTERVENTION: Therapeutic T cells from DLNs were generated by the sequential activation of the in vivo-primed DLN cells with 2C11, and anti-CD3 antibody, and interleukin-2 (IL-2). Immunotherapy of mice bearing lung metastases was carried out in various experiments with low-dose systemic IL-2 and activated DLN cells. Using a 4-hour radioactive chromium Cr 51 release assay, in vitro cytotoxicity of these cells also was examined. RESULTS: Mice immunized with this tumor failed to reject the growth of a subsequent challenge with the tumor. Immunotherapy with low-dose systemic IL-2 resulted in a mean reduction of 79% in the number of lung metastases. Adoptive immunotherapy with activated DLN cells was effective in all experiments, with a mean reduction of 59% in the number of metastases in immunodeficient mice. However, DLN cells were not directly cytotoxic to the tumor cells in in vitro assays, unlike control lymphokine-activated killer cells. CONCLUSIONS: AT-84 is a nonimmunogenic tumor similar to many human malignant neoplasms, making this a suitable model for immunotherapy. Low-dose systemic IL-2 was effective in reduction of established metastasis in this model. Activated DLN cells show reproducible in vivo therapeutic efficacy despite lack of in vitro cytotoxicity. Use of DLN cells as sources of therapeutic T cells in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma deserves exploration because they are readily obtainable and because conventional treatment is of limited benefit.

Bilateral chylothorax following neck dissection: a new method of treatment.

Chylothorax is a serious condition with a high rate of morbidity that may lead to death. Although it is encountered more frequently with certain thoracic procedures, it is considered to be a rare complication of neck dissection. Different forms of management have been postulated; however, no consensus of treatment has been achieved. A case of severe bilateral chylothorax that developed after bilateral neck dissection in a patient with laryngeal carcinoma is presented. Somatostatin injection was successful after total parenteral nutrition failed to control the chylothorax. On the basis of this case and the review of the literature discussed here, we advocate the use of somatostatin with other conservative measures in the management of chylothorax.

[Role of new MRI techniques in neuroradiologic practice]. / Place des nouvelles techniques IRM en pratique courante neuroradiologique.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been introduced in clinical practice in the mid-eighties. However, MRI is an ever evolving imaging technique with constant new developments allowing broadening of clinical applications. In particular, angio-MRI involves many different acquisition techniques that will guide their clinical use. On the other hand, clinical applications of the following techniques are briefly discussed: diffusion, perfusion, tractography and diffusion tensor imaging, spectroscopy and functional imaging.