Unintended Consequences: Testing the Effects of Adolescent-Targeted Anti-vaping Media Upon Adult Smokers.

INTRODUCTION: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other organizations have produced and disseminated public health campaigns designed to deter youth from vaping. Yet it is unknown how these campaigns affect adult smokers exposed to these messages with respect to their perceptions of e-cigarettes and their motivation to use these products to reduce or quit smoking. AIMS AND METHODS: A controlled experimental design was used to investigate the effects of an FDA-distributed youth-targeted anti-vaping public service announcement (PSA), "Vaping is an Epidemic," upon adult smokers. We randomized 161 daily smokers to view either the FDA PSA or a matched video absent of e-cigarette content, and we hypothesized that the PSA would impact variables related to harm reduction usage of e-cigarettes, including cognitive expectancies, perceived harm, smoking cessation effectiveness, and reported likelihood of switching from smoking to vaping. RESULTS: The PSA produced increases in both health risk and potency expectancies. Viewing the PSA compared to the control video resulted in overall more negative expectancies about e-cigarettes and all other variables related to harm reduction usage. Those who viewed the PSA rated e-cigarettes as more harmful (p < .001) and less effective for smoking cessation (p < .01), and they reported lower switching motivation (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicated that adult smokers who viewed the PSA were less likely to consider e-cigarettes for smoking cessation, thus reducing acceptance of a potential cessation aid with growing empirical support. Sensationalized youth-oriented anti-vaping messages may have unintended public health consequences upon adult audiences. IMPLICATIONS: This study is the first controlled experiment examining the effects of youth-oriented anti-vaping PSAs upon adult smokers' cognitive expectancies and beliefs about e-cigarettes. Exposure to the PSA resulted in overall more negative expectancies about e-cigarettes, as well as increased perceived harmfulness and reduced effectiveness of e-cigarettes for smoking cessation. Findings showed that these PSAs could deter adult smokers from the utilization of e-cigarettes as a smoking cessation or harm reduction strategy.

Testing Augmented Reality for Eliciting Cue-Provoked Urges to Smoke: Toward Moving Cue-Exposure Into the Real World.

BACKGROUND: Cue exposure for extinguishing conditioned urges to smoking cues has been promising in the laboratory, but difficult to implement in natural environments. The recent availability of augmented reality (AR) via smartphone provides an opportunity to overcome this limitation. Testing the ability of AR to elicit cue-provoked urges to smoke (ie, cue reactivity [CR]) is the first step to systemically testing the efficacy of AR for cue exposure therapy. OBJECTIVES: To test CR to smoking-related AR cues compared to neutral AR cues, and compared to in vivo cues. METHODS: A 2 × 2 within-subject design comparing cue content (smoking vs. neutral) and presentation modality (AR vs. in vivo) on urge response. Seventeen smokers viewed six smoking-related and six neutral cues via AR smartphone app and also six smoking and six neutral in vivo cues. Participants rated their urge to smoke and reality/co-existence of the cue. RESULTS: Average urge to smoke was higher following smoking-related AR images (Median = 7.50) than neutral images (Median = 3.33) (Z = -3.44; p = .001; d = 1.37). Similarly, average urge ratings for in vivo smoking-related cues (Median = 8.12) were higher than for neutral cues (Median = 2.12) (Z = -3.44; p = .001; d = 1.64). Also, greater CR was observed for in vivo cues than for AR cues (Z = -2.67, p = .008; d = .36). AR cues were generally perceived as being realistic and well-integrated. CONCLUSIONS: CR was demonstrated with very large effect sizes in response to AR smoking cues, although slightly smaller than with in vivo smoking cues. This satisfies the first criterion for the potential use of AR for exposure therapy. IMPLICATIONS: This study introduces AR as a novel modality for presenting smoking-related stimuli to provoke cue reactivity, and ultimately to conduct extinction-based therapy. AR cues presented via a smartphone have the advantage over other modes of cue presentation (pictures, virtual reality, in vivo, etc.) of being easily transportable, affordable, and realistic, and they can be inserted in a smokers' natural environment rather than being limited to laboratory and clinic settings. These AR features may overcome the generalizability barriers of other methods, thus increasing clinical utility for cue exposure therapies.

Augmented reality as a novel approach for addiction treatment: development of a smoking cessation app.

OBJECTIVE: Augmented reality (AR) is a rapidly developing technology that has substantial potential as a novel approach for addiction treatment, including tobacco use. AR can facilitate the delivery of cue exposure therapy (CET) such that individuals can experience the treatment in their natural environments as viewed via a smartphone screen, addressing the limited generalizbility of extinction learning. Previously, our team developed a basic AR app for smoking cessation and demonstrated the necessary mechanisms for CET. Specifically, we showed that the AR smoking cues, compared to neutral cues, elicited substantial cue reactivity (i.e. increased urge) and that repeated exposure to the AR smoking cues reduced urge (i.e. extinction) in a laboratory setting. Here we report the next step in the systematic development of the AR app, in which we assessed the usability and acceptability of the app among daily smokers in their natural environments. METHOD: Daily smokers (N = 23, 78.3% female, Mean Age = 43.4, Mean Cigarettes/Day = 14.9), not actively quitting, were instructed to use the AR app in locations and situations where they smoke (e.g. home, bar) at least 5 times per day over one week. The study is registered in clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04101422). RESULTS: Results indicated high usability and acceptability. Most of the participants (73.9%) used the AR app on at least 5 days. Participants found the AR cues realistic and well-integrated in their natural environments. The AR app was perceived as easy to use (Mean = 4.1/5) and learn (mean of 2 days to learn). Overall satisfaction with the app was also high. Secondary analyses found that 56.5% reported reduced smoking, with an average 26% reduction in cigarettes per day at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: These findings set the stage for a randomized controlled trial testing the AR app as an adjuvant therapy for treating tobacco dependence, with potential applicability to other substances. KEY MESSAGEThis study found that the augmented reality (AR) smartphone application that utlized cue exposure treatment for smoking cessation was perceived as easy to use and learn in the natural, day-to-day environment of daily smokers. Findings set the stage for a larger clinical trial testing the AR app as an adjuvant therapy for treating tobacco dependence, with potential applicability to other addictive behaviors.

Augmented reality for extinction of cue-provoked urges to smoke: Proof of concept.

OBJECTIVE: Cue-exposure therapy (CET) aims to extinguish conditioned cue reactivity (CR) to aid in smoking cessation. A key disadvantage of extant CET is its limited ability to generalize extinction to the real world. Our team developed a set of augmented reality smoking-related and neutral cues that can appear in real-time in smokers' natural environments as viewed through a smartphone screen. Prior to deployment as a clinical tool, the present study tested the ability of AR smoking cues to extinguish CR in a controlled laboratory study with an AR smartphone application developed for this project. We hypothesized that daily smokers who completed a single session of cue exposure with AR smoking cues (extinction condition) would demonstrate lower cue-provoked urge to smoke at posttest compared to those who viewed AR neutral cues (control condition). METHOD: Daily smokers (N = 129, 46.5% female, Mage = 47.6, Mcigarettes/day = 19.1) in acute abstinence were randomized to either the extinction or control condition comprising 28 AR trials. RESULTS: As hypothesized, we found a Time × Condition interaction indicating that posttest urge ratings were lower in the extinction condition than in the control condition (p = .034). A secondary hypothesis that participants in the extinction condition would show a longer latency to smoke when provided a cigarette was not supported. CONCLUSIONS: These laboratory findings provide evidence supporting the potential clinical efficacy of AR cues for cue-exposure trials, setting the stage for testing in smokers' naturalistic environments. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Minding the Gap: Leveraging Mindfulness to Inform Cue Exposure Treatment for Substance Use Disorders.

Despite extinction-based processes demonstrating efficacy in the animal extinction and human anxiety literatures, extinction for substance use disorders (SUD) has shown poor efficacy (i. e., cue exposure treatment [CET]). Reasons for this lack of success include common threats to extinction, such as renewal and reinstatement. In recent decades, research on mindfulness for SUD has flourished, and a key aspect of these mindfulness-based interventions includes teaching individuals to stay present with whatever experience they have, even if unpleasant, without trying to change/escape/avoid it. Similarly, CET teaches individuals to not escape/avoid conditioned responses (e.g., craving) by engaging in drug use behavior. This paper discusses how mindfulness-based research and practices could positively influence CET through future research (e.g., Could mindfulness practice attenuate renewal? Might mindfulness training + CET enhance the ability to extinguish the most salient or motivational cues?), with the long-term goal of improving SUD treatment.

Randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of expressive writing in reducing anxiety in first-year college students: the role of linguistic features.

OBJECTIVE: Meta-analyses assessing the efficacy of expressive writing (EW) interventions have produced mixed results. The current study aimed to assess the efficacy of an EW intervention in the reduction of anxiety symptoms in first-year college students. In an effort to understand more about moderating variables that influence EW outcomes, the current study also assessed the role of linguistic features in symptom reduction. DESIGN AND MEASURES: Ninety participants were assigned to complete either an EW intervention or a non-emotional writing intervention. Participants completed 3 consecutive days of writing and two follow-up visits. Anxiety was measured at each study visit with the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and linguistic features were assessed with the LIWC software program. RESULTS: Results indicated that all participants demonstrated significant decreases in anxiety over time. Participants in the EW group who demonstrated the greatest decreases in anxiety utilized more first-person singular pronouns and fewer affect words. CONCLUSIONS: Results are explained in the context of two prominent theories regarding the therapeutic mechanisms of EW: cognitive processing theory and exposure theory. Exposure theory received more support than cognitive processing theory.

Distinct influences of nicotine and sensorimotor stimuli on reducing cravings to smoke and vape among dual users.

INTRODUCTION: When considering the clinical efficacy of e-cigarettes for smoking cessation, non-pharmacologic influences, such as conditioned reinforcers (e.g. sensorimotor stimuli), must be considered in addition to nicotine. The present study parsed the influences of nicotine delivery and sensorimotor stimuli (i.e, similarity to smoking) on cravings and other immediate outcomes of e-cigarette use. METHOD: Participants (N = 127 dual users) completed an experimental ad-lib vaping session in one of 4 conditions: Drug (open label nicotine vs non-nicotine e-cigarettes) crossed with delivery apparatus (normal e-cigarette vs altered sensorimotor apparatus). It was hypothesized that participants who were deprived of the usual vaping stimuli would report less craving reduction via vaping. Nicotine was hypothesized to enhance physiological outcomes. RESULTS: Moderate effects emerged for nicotine, whereas smaller effects were observed for the sensorimotor manipulation upon both cravings to smoke and cravings to vape. Contrary to the hypothesis, participants who vaped using the altered sensorimotor apparatus reported greater craving reduction compared to those who used normal e-cigarettes. Nicotine delivery also had moderate effects on psychological reward. Main effects were not moderated by gender, withdrawal, or dependence. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the role of nicotine in reducing cravings via vaping. They also suggest that sensorimotor similarities to smoking may be less important among experienced vapers or dual users. Indeed, in this sample, the altered sensorimotor apparatus may have reduced craving via distraction or other mechanisms.

Augmented Reality for Smoking Cessation: Development and Usability Study.

BACKGROUND: The recent widespread availability of augmented reality via smartphone offers an opportunity to translate cue exposure therapy for smoking cessation from the laboratory to the real world. Despite significant reductions in the smoking rates in the last decade, approximately 13.7% of the adults in the United States continue to smoke. Smoking-related cue exposure has demonstrated promise as an adjuvant therapy in the laboratory, but practical limitations have prevented its success in the real world. Augmented reality technology presents an innovative approach to overcome these limitations. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop a smartphone app that presents smoking-related augmented reality images for cue exposure. Smokers provided feedback on the images and reported on the perceived urge to smoke, qualities of reality/coexistence, and general feedback about quality and functioning. The feedback was used to refine the augmented reality images within the app. METHODS: In collaboration with an augmented reality design company, we developed 6 smoking-related images (cigarette, lighter, ashtray, lit cigarette in ashtray, etc) and 6 neutral images similar in size or complexity for comparison (pen, eraser, notebook, soda bottle with droplets, etc). Ten smokers completed a survey of demographic characteristics, smoking history and behavior, dependence on nicotine, motivation to quit smoking, and familiarity with augmented reality technology. Then, participants viewed each augmented reality image and provided ratings on 10-point Likert scales for urge to smoke and reality/coexistence of the image into the scene. Participants were also queried with open-ended questions regarding the features of the images. RESULTS: Of the 10 participants, 5 (50%) had experienced augmented reality prior to the laboratory visit, but only 4 of those 5 participants used augmented reality at least weekly. Although the sample was small (N=10), smokers reported significantly higher urge to smoke after viewing the smoking-related augmented reality images (median 4.58, SD 3.49) versus the neutral images (median 1.42, SD 3.01) (Z=-2.14, P=.03; d=0.70). The average reality and coexistence ratings of the images did not differ between smoking-related and neutral images (all P>.29). Augmented reality images were found on average to be realistic (mean [SD] score 6.49 [3.11]) and have good environmental coexistence (mean [SD] score 6.93 [3.04]) and user coexistence (mean [SD] score 6.38 [3.27]) on the 10-point scale. Participant interviews revealed some areas of excellence (eg, details of the lit cigarette) and areas for improvement (eg, stability of images, lighting). CONCLUSIONS: All images were generally perceived as being realistic and well-integrated into the environment. However, the smoking augmented reality images produced higher urge to smoke than the neutral augmented reality images. In total, our findings support the potential utility of augmented reality for cue exposure therapy. Future directions and next steps are discussed.

Facilitating smoking cessation using reduced nicotine cigarettes: Intervention development and RCT study design.

Smoking cigarettes with substantially lower nicotine than conventional cigarettes prior to a quit attempt may reduce the reinforcing effects of smoking, which could facilitate smoking cessation through extinction learning. This paper describes the development of a smoking cessation intervention designed to optimize extinction processes using reduced nicotine cigarettes, as well as the design and methods for an ongoing randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate this intervention. Qualitative methods and pilot testing were conducted to develop the novel facilitated extinction (FE) intervention, with a key focus on maximizing opportunities for extinction learning during a five-week pre-quit period. The primary aims of the RCT are to test the effects of the FE intervention versus a standard (cognitive-behavioral) intervention, while also comparing two nicotine reduction schedules for providing very low nicotine content (VLNC) cigarettes. The efficacy of the intervention is currently being evaluated with treatment-seeking smokers (n = 208) randomly assigned to one of four conditions crossing FE versus standard intervention with immediate versus gradual transition to VLNC cigarettes.

Effects of negative incentive shifts in food reward on rats' consumption of concurrent ethanol solutions.

Frustration stress, typically operationalized as the unexpected loss of reinforcement, has been shown to engender substance use. Abrupt reductions in reinforcer magnitude likely also function as frustration stressors. These negative incentive shifts were previously shown to produce tap- and sweetened-water drinking in rats. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether these shifts in food reward would occasion oral ethanol self-administration. Nine male Long-Evans rats operated on a two-component multiple fixed-ratio schedule with signaled components producing either a large (4 pellets) or small (1pellet) reinforcer. Components were pseudorandomly arranged to present 4 transitions between past and upcoming reinforcer magnitudes: small-to-large, small-to-small, large-to-large, and large-to-small (negative incentive shift). Experiment 1 investigated the effects of negative incentive shifts on consumption of concurrent, freely available 10% sucrose, 10% sucrose plus 10% ethanol, and following sucrose fading, 10% ethanol. Experiment 2 entailed continuation of schedule contingencies with a dose manipulation of 4 ethanol concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 20%) to assess dose-dependent differences in transition-type control and consumption. A lever-press extinction condition was then conducted with 10% ethanol availability. In this novel model of frustration stress, negative incentive shifts prompted ethanol self-administration at each dose investigated, whereas the other transitions did not.

Effects of shifts in food reinforcement context on rats' consumption of concurrently available water or sucrose solution.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of signaled transitions from relatively rich to lean conditions of food reinforcement on drinking concurrently available water or sucrose-sweetened water in rats. Past research demonstrated that these negative incentive shifts produce behavioral disruption in the form of extended pausing on fixed-ratio schedules. Four male Long-Evans rats operated on a two-component multiple fixed-ratio fixed-ratio schedule. In one manipulation, the ratio was held constant and the components arranged either a large six-pellet reinforcer (rich) or small one-pellet reinforcer (lean). In a second manipulation, the components both produced a one-pellet reinforcer but differed in terms of the ratio requirement, with the rich and lean conditions corresponding to relatively small and large ratios. In both manipulations, components were pseudorandomly presented to arrange four transitions signaled by retractable levers: lean-to-lean, lean-to-rich, rich-to-rich, and rich-to-lean (the negative incentive shift). During experimental conditions, a bottle with lickometer was inserted in the chamber, providing concurrent access either to tap water or a 10% sucrose solution. The negative incentive shift produced considerably more drinking than the other transitions in all rats during both manipulations. The level of drinking was not polydipsic; rather, it appears that the negative incentive shift enhanced the value of concurrently available reinforcers relative to food reinforcement.

Remodeling a clinical ladder: an action research design.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate descriptors of practice designed to help nurses and managers assist the nurse along the advanced beginner to expert continuum. This study was part of a larger action research program integrating a registered nurse (RN) performance appraisal and clinical ladder. Informants selected descriptors corresponding to their routine practice from randomized lists in each nursing domain. Analysis demonstrated distinctive selection patterns in proficient and expert nurses in all but one domain. Findings supported the use of descriptors in locating an individual on the developmental continuum.