A comprehensive description of kidney disease progression after acute kidney injury from a prospective, parallel-group cohort study.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with adverse long-term outcomes, but many studies are retrospective, focused on specific patient groups or lack adequate comparators. The ARID (AKI Risk in Derby) Study was a five-year prospective parallel-group cohort study to examine this. Hospitalized cohorts with and without exposure to AKI were matched 1:1 for age, baseline kidney function, and diabetes. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and the urinary albumin:creatinine ratio (uACR) were measured at three-months, one-, three- and five-years. Outcomes included kidney disease progression, heart failure episodes and mortality. In 866 matched individuals, kidney disease progression at five years was found to be significantly increased in 30% of the exposed group versus 7% of those non-exposed (adjusted odds ratio 2.49 [95% confidence interval 1.43 to 4.36]). In the AKI group, this was largely characterized by incomplete recovery of kidney function by three months. Further episodes of AKI during follow-up were significantly more common in the exposed group (odds ratio 2.71 [1.94 to 3.77]) and had an additive effect on risk of kidney disease progression. Mortality and heart failure episodes were more frequent in the exposed group, but the association with AKI was no longer significant when models were adjusted for three-month eGFR and uACR. In a general hospitalized population, kidney disease progression after five years was common and strongly associated with AKI. Thus, the time course of changes and the attenuation of associations with adverse outcomes after adjustment for three-month eGFR and uACR suggest non-recovery of kidney function is an important assessment in post-AKI care and a potential future target for intervention. STUDY REGISTRATION: ISRCTN25405995.

Cortical change after a 2-week novel robotic rehabilitation program in children with prior hemispherectomy: pilot imaging study.

INTRODUCTION: Partial preservation of sensory and motor functions in the contralateral extremities after hemispherectomy is likely secondary to cortical reorganization of the remaining hemisphere and can be improved by rehabilitation. This study aims to investigate behavioral and structural cerebral cortical changes that may occur after a 2-week novel robotic rehabilitation program in children with prior anatomic hemispherectomy. METHODS: Five patients with prior anatomic hemispherectomy (average age 10.8 years; all female) participated in a 2-week novel robotic rehabilitation program. Pre- and post-treatment (2 time points) high-resolution structural 3D FSPGR (fast spoiled gradient echo) magnetic resonance images were analyzed to measure cortical thickness and gray matter volume using a locally designed image processing pipeline. RESULTS: Four of the five patients showed improvement in the Fugl-Meyer score (average increase 2.5 + 2.1 SD. Individual analyses identified small increases in gray matter volume near the hand knob area of the primary cortex in three of the five patients. Group analyses identified an increase in cortical thickness near the hand knob area of the primary motor cortex, in addition to other sensorimotor regions. CONCLUSION: This small pilot study demonstrates that potentially rehabilitation-associated cortical changes can be identified with MRI in hemispherectomy patients.

Cultural and translation challenges in assessing health literacy among immigrants from the former Soviet Union.

Health literacy is an important foundation for health promotion and an under-recognized risk factor for immigrant and refugee groups. Yet measuring health literacy among diverse ethnic and linguistic populations presents complex challenges. We describe cultural and translation challenges encountered in measuring health literacy among Russian-speaking immigrants to the USA and offer a mixed-methods approach to understanding them. The Rx-Health Literacy (RxHL) study used cross-sectional quantitative and qualitative data to examine health literacy and medication adherence among five cultural and four language groups (Latinx, Vietnamese, African-American, Russian-speaking immigrant and White American) who are patients at Caring Health Center, a federally qualified health center in Springfield, MA. We translated an existing health literacy scale into Russian and Vietnamese and examined item difficulty across cultural groups. We conducted qualitative cognitive interviews to learn more about Russian speakers' understandings of the scale. Health literacy scores varied by cultural group, and the range of correct responses was much greater among Russian speakers than in other groups. Percentage correct varied by 69.7% for Russian speakers, compared with 25.0-44.0% for other groups. These findings indicate greater variability in health literacy levels among this group compared with others. Cognitive interviews with Russian-speaking participants revealed multiple interpretations of several items, suggesting that the English version of the scale contained embedded meanings associated with an American health care context that were not captured in the translated instrument. Combining qualitative and quantitative research methods allows for greater insight into contextual and translation factors that may shape the results of translated instruments in unanticipated ways.

Hepatic Fatty Acid Profiles Associated with Exposure to Emerging and Legacy Halogenated Contaminants in Two Harbor Seal Populations across the North Atlantic.

Fatty acids (FAs) have been extensively used as indicators of foraging ecology in marine mammals, yet their association with exposure to contaminants has rarely been investigated. The present study provided the first characterization of the relationship between hepatic FA profiles and exposure to a suite of contaminants in a sentinel species─the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)─from the Gulf of Maine and the south coast of Sweden. FA profiles differed in the two seal populations, and the levels of legacy and alternative brominated flame retardants and polyhalogenated carbazoles were significantly elevated in Maine seals. Correlations between individual FAs and multiple flame retardants (FRs) and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were found in seals from both populations. Moreover, several FR and PFAS chemicals were significantly associated with the estimated desaturating enzyme activity inferred from the FA profiles. The ratios of poly to monounsaturated FAs (∑PUFAs/∑MUFAs) and those of unsaturated to saturated FAs (∑UFAs/∑SFAs) were significantly associated with HBBZ, PFHxS, or BDE 47 in seals from Maine and Sweden, whereas ∑n - 6/∑n - 3 PUFAs was significantly associated with BDE 154 and 36-CCZ in Swedish and Maine seals, respectively. Our results suggest the lipid metabolism-disrupting potential of these contaminants in marine mammals and warrant continuous biomonitoring and risk assessment, considering the critical role of PUFAs in vital biological processes.

Spatiotemporal Trends of Legacy and Alternative Flame Retardants in Harbor Seals from the Coasts of California, the Gulf of Maine, and Sweden.

Temporal trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been extensively studied in various environmental compartments globally. However, despite the increasing use of alternative flame retardants following PBDE bans, the spatiotemporal trends of these replacements have rarely been studied, and the available results are often inconsistent. In the present study, we retrospectively investigated the spatiotemporal trends of PBDEs and a suite of alternative brominated FRs (aBFRs) and chlorinated FRs (i.e., dechloranes or DECs) in three harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) populations from the coasts of California, the Gulf of Maine, and southern Sweden during 1999-2016. We observed significantly decreasing trends of ΣPBDEs in all the three populations at an annual rate of 9-11%, which were predominantly driven by the declining concentrations of tetra- and penta-BDEs. The levels of ΣaBFRs decreased significantly in seals from California (mainly 1,3,5-tribromobenzene) and Sweden (mainly hexabromobenzene), while no trend was observed for those from Maine. By contrast, DECs (dominated by DEC 602) did not decrease significantly in any population. Compared with the consistent PBDE congener profiles across regions, aBFRs and DECs exhibited varying compositional profiles between regions, likely indicating region-specific sources of these alternative FR mixtures. Spatial analysis also revealed regional differences in the concentrations of PBDEs, aBFRs, and DECs in harbor seals. Our reconstructed spatiotemporal trends suggest the effective regulation of commercial penta-BDE mix in these regions and warrant further monitoring of the higher brominated BDEs and alternative FRs.

Using a bimanual lever-driven wheelchair for arm movement practice early after stroke: A pilot, randomized, controlled, single-blind trial.

OBJECTIVE: Many patients with subacute stroke rely on the nonparetic arm and leg to propel manual wheelchairs. We designed a bimanual, lever-driven wheelchair (LARA) to promote overground mobility and hemiparetic arm exercise. This study measured the feasibility of using LARA to increase arm movement, achieve mobility, and improve arm motor recovery (clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02830893). DESIGN: Randomized, assessor-blind, controlled trial. SETTING: Two inpatient rehabilitation facilities. SUBJECTS: Nineteen patients with subacute stroke (1 week to 2 months post-stroke) received 30 minutes extra arm movement practice daily, while admitted to inpatient rehabilitation (n = 10) or before enrollment in outpatient therapy (n = 9). INTERVENTIONS: Patients were randomized to train with the LARA wheelchair (n = 11) or conventional exercises with a rehabilitation therapist (n = 8). MAIN MEASURES: Number of arm movements per training session; overground speed; Upper Extremity Fugl-Meyer score at three-month follow-up. RESULTS: Participants who trained with LARA completed 254 (median) arm movements with the paretic arm each session. For three participants, LARA enabled wheelchair mobility at practical indoor speeds (0.15-0.30 m/s). Fugl-Meyer score increased 19 ± 13 points for patients who trained with LARA compared to 14 ± 7 points with conventional exercises (P = 0.32). Secondary measures including shoulder pain and increased tone did not differ between groups. Mixed model analysis found significant interaction between LARA training and treatment duration (P = 0.037), informing power analysis for future investigation. CONCLUSIONS: Practising arm movement with a lever-driven wheelchair is a feasible method for increasing arm movement early after stroke. It enabled wheelchair mobility for a subset of patients and shows potential for improving arm motor recovery.

Fluorine Mass Balance and Suspect Screening in Marine Mammals from the Northern Hemisphere.

There is increasing evidence that the ∼20 routinely monitored perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) account for only a fraction of extractable organofluorine (EOF) occurring in the environment. To assess whether PFAS exposure is being underestimated in marine mammals from the Northern Hemisphere, we performed a fluorine mass balance on liver tissues from 11 different species using a combination of targeted PFAS analysis, EOF and total fluorine determination, and suspect screening. Samples were obtained from the east coast United States (US), west and east coast of Greenland, Iceland, and Sweden from 2000 to 2017. Of the 36 target PFASs, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) dominated in all but one Icelandic and three US samples, where the 7:3 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (7:3 FTCA) was prevalent. This is the first report of 7:3 FTCA in polar bears (∼1000 ng/g, ww) and cetaceans (<6-190 ng/g, ww). In 18 out of 25 samples, EOF was not significantly greater than fluorine concentrations derived from sum target PFASs. For the remaining 7 samples (mostly from the US east coast), 30-75% of the EOF was unidentified. Suspect screening revealed an additional 37 PFASs (not included in the targeted analysis) bringing the total to 63 detected PFASs from 12 different classes. Overall, these results highlight the importance of a multiplatform approach for accurately characterizing PFAS exposure in marine mammals.

Electrocorticographic Encoding of Human Gait in the Leg Primary Motor Cortex.

While prior noninvasive (e.g., electroencephalographic) studies suggest that the human primary motor cortex (M1) is active during gait processes, the limitations of noninvasive recordings make it impossible to determine whether M1 is involved in high-level motor control (e.g., obstacle avoidance, walking speed), low-level motor control (e.g., coordinated muscle activation), or only nonmotor processes (e.g., integrating/relaying sensory information). This study represents the first invasive electroneurophysiological characterization of the human leg M1 during walking. Two subjects with an electrocorticographic grid over the interhemispheric M1 area were recruited. Both exhibited generalized γ-band (40-200 Hz) synchronization across M1 during treadmill walking, as well as periodic γ-band changes within each stride (across multiple walking speeds). Additionally, these changes appeared to be of motor, rather than sensory, origin. However, M1 activity during walking shared few features with M1 activity during individual leg muscle movements, and was not highly correlated with lower limb trajectories on a single channel basis. These findings suggest that M1 primarily encodes high-level gait motor control (i.e., walking duration and speed) instead of the low-level patterns of leg muscle activation or movement trajectories. Therefore, M1 likely interacts with subcortical/spinal networks, which are responsible for low-level motor control, to produce normal human walking.

The RxHL study: community-responsive research to explore barriers to medication adherence.

This study aims to contribute to the development of community-responsive research approaches by describing the research methods used in the RxHL study and the interprofessional and community-based collaboration that produced them. The mixed-method RxHL study was developed in close consultation with staff and providers at our research site, a federally qualified health center in Springfield, MA. We utilized quantitative methods including chart review, manual pill counts and self-report surveys to assess factors associated with medication adherence in a diverse population of low-income patients with chronic disease. We triangulated these results with findings from qualitative methods that included in-depth interviews, home visits and chronic disease diaries. We used the constant comparison method and interdisciplinary, participatory team meetings to integrate quantitative and qualitative findings. A community-responsive approach facilitated the recruitment and retention of a diverse sample of patients. Self-report surveys revealed the widespread scope of barriers to care such as medication costs and transportation, and limited health literacy among diverse groups. Qualitative research methods offered a deeper understanding of the social and environmental contexts in which medication adherence takes place. Prioritizing the needs of community partners and research participants facilitates rigorous data collection in clinical settings with maximum participation from community partners.

Epilepsy surgery in the underserved Hispanic population improves depression, anxiety, and quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of epilepsy surgery on depression, anxiety, and quality of life (QOL) in a Hispanic, primarily immigrant, Spanish-speaking population with intractable epilepsy (IE). METHODS: Patients with IE from a comprehensive epilepsy treatment center in an urban, public healthcare setting who underwent resective brain surgery between 2008 and 2014 (N=47) and completed presurgical and postsurgical neuropsychological evaluation were retrospectively identified. Presurgical and 1-year postsurgical Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and QOLIE-31 ratings were analyzed as postsurgical outcome measures. One-tailed paired sample t-tests were used to evaluate whether scores improved postoperatively. Established severity level classifications of depression and anxiety (i.e., minimal, mild, moderate, or severe) were used to analyze changes in occurrence of depression and anxiety. RESULTS: Medium to large improvements on the BDI-II and most QOLIE-31 subscales, with a smaller effect on the BAI and remaining QOLIE-31 subscales, were noted 1-year postsurgery. Levels of depression and anxiety were significantly reduced 1-year postsurgery. Depression, anxiety, and QOL improvements were robust and unaffected by gender, levels of education, or hemisphere of surgery. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the positive benefits of epilepsy surgery on depression, anxiety, and QOL in Hispanic, primarily undocumented immigrant, Spanish-speaking people with epilepsy (PWE) in the US. These results are useful for educating this particular population about the possible benefits of surgery for IE and can enhance presurgical counseling.

A Phase II feasibility study of oral etoposide given concurrently with radiotherapy followed by dose intensive adjuvant chemotherapy for children with newly diagnosed high-risk medulloblastoma (protocol POG 9631): A report from the Children's Oncology Group.

BACKGROUND: Children with high-risk medulloblastoma historically have had a poor prognosis. The Children's Oncology Group completed a Phase II study using oral etoposide given with radiotherapy followed by intensive chemotherapy. PROCEDURE: Patients enrolled in the study had high-risk disease defined as ≥1.5 cm2 of residual disease postsurgery or definite evidence of central nervous metastasis. All patients underwent surgery followed by radiotherapy. During radiation, the patients received oral etoposide (21 days on, 7 off) at an initial dose of 50 mg/m2 per day (treatment 1), which was reduced to 35 mg/m2 per day (treatment 2) due to toxicity. After radiotherapy, the patients received chemotherapy with three cycles of cisplatin and oral etoposide, followed by eight courses of cyclophosphamide and vincristine. RESULTS: Between November 1998 and October 2002, 53 patients were accrued; 15 received treatment 1 and 38 treatment 2. Forty-seven patients (89%) were eligible. Response to radiation was excellent, with 19 (40.4%) showing complete response, 24 (51.1%) partial response, and four (8.5%) no recorded response. The overall 2- and 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) was 76.6 ± 6% and 70.2 ± 7%, respectively. The 2- and 5-year overall survival (OS) was 80.9 ± 6% and 76.6 ± 6%, respectively. Clinical response postradiation and PFS/OS were not significantly different between the treatment groups. There was a trend toward a difference in 5-year PFS between those without and with metastatic disease (P = 0.072). CONCLUSIONS: Oral etoposide was tolerable at 35 mg/m2 (21 days on and 7 days off) when given during full-dose irradiation in patients with high-risk medulloblastoma with encouraging survival data.

A web-based clinical decision tool to support treatment decision-making in psychiatry: a pilot focus group study with clinicians, patients and carers.

BACKGROUND: Treatment decision tools have been developed in many fields of medicine, including psychiatry, however benefits for patients have not been sustained once the support is withdrawn. We have developed a web-based computerised clinical decision support tool (CDST), which can provide patients and clinicians with continuous, up-to-date, personalised information about the efficacy and tolerability of competing interventions. To test the feasibility and acceptability of the CDST we conducted a focus group study, aimed to explore the views of clinicians, patients and carers. METHODS: The CDST was developed in Oxford. To tailor treatments at an individual level, the CDST combines the best available evidence from the scientific literature with patient preferences and values, and with patient medical profile to generate personalised clinical recommendations. We conducted three focus groups comprising of three different participant types: consultant psychiatrists, participants with a mental health diagnosis and/or experience of caring for someone with a mental health diagnosis, and primary care practitioners and nurses. Each 1-h focus group started with a short visual demonstration of the CDST. To standardise the discussion during the focus groups, we used the same topic guide that covered themes relating to the acceptability and usability of the CDST. Focus groups were recorded and any identifying participant details were anonymised. Data were analysed thematically and managed using the Framework method and the constant comparative method. RESULTS: The focus groups took place in Oxford between October 2016 and January 2017. Overall 31 participants attended (12 consultants, 11 primary care practitioners and 8 patients or carers). The main themes that emerged related to CDST applications in clinical practice, communication, conflicting priorities, record keeping and data management. CDST was considered a useful clinical decision support, with recognised value in promoting clinician-patient collaboration and contributing to the development of personalised medicine. One major benefit of the CDST was perceived to be the open discussion about the possible side-effects of medications. Participants from all the three groups, however, universally commented that the terminology and language presented on the CDST were too medicalised, potentially leading to ethical issues around consent to treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The CDST can improve communication pathways between patients, carers and clinicians, identifying care priorities and providing an up-to-date platform for implementing evidence-based practice, with regard to prescribing practices.

Clinical learning environments: place, artefacts and rhythm.

CONTEXT: Health care practitioners learn through experience in clinical environments in which supervision is a key component, but how that learning occurs outside the supervision relationship remains largely unknown. This study explores the environmental factors that inform and support workplace learning within a clinical environment. METHODS: An observational study drawing on ethnographic methods was undertaken in a general medicine ward. Observers paid attention to interactions among staff members that involved potential teaching and learning moments that occurred and were visible in the course of routine work. General purpose thematic analysis of field notes was undertaken. RESULTS: A total of 376 observations were undertaken and documented. The findings suggest that place (location of interaction), rhythm (regularity of activities occurring in the ward) and artefacts (objects and equipment) were strong influences on the interactions and exchanges that occurred. Each of these themes had inherent tensions that could promote or inhibit engagement and therefore learning opportunities. Although many learning opportunities were available, not all were taken up or recognised by the participants. CONCLUSIONS: We describe and make explicit how the natural environment of a medical ward and flow of work through patient care contribute to the learning architecture, and how this creates or inhibits opportunities for learning. Awareness of learning opportunities was often tacit and not explicit for either supervisor or learner. We identify strategies through which tensions inherent within space, artefacts and the rhythms of work can be resolved and learning opportunities maximised.

Intraosseous vascular access in critically ill adults--a review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: The IO route is an established method of obtaining vascular access in children in acute and emergency situations and is now increasingly being used in adults as an alternative to intravenous access, yet a paucity of evidence exists regarding its use, effectiveness and implementation. AIM AND OBJECTIVES: The aim of this literature review is to present a detailed investigation critiquing contemporary practices of intraosseous (IO) vascular access in adult patients. Specific objectives identified led to the exploration of clinical contexts, IO device/s and anatomical sites; education and training requirements; implications and recommendations for emergency health care practice and any requirements for further research. SEARCH STRATEGIES: An exploratory literature review was undertaken in acknowledgement of the broad and complex nature of the project aim. Five electronic search engines were examined iteratively from June 2013 to February 2014. The search terms were 'intraosseous' and 'adult' which were purposely limited because of the exploratory nature of the review. Studies that met the inclusion criteria of primary research articles with an adult focus were included. Research with a paediatric focus was excluded. Secondary research, reviews, case reports, editorials and opinion papers were excluded. CONCLUSION: IO vascular access is considered an alternative intravascular access route although debate considering the preferred anatomical site is ongoing. Documented practices are only established in pre-hospital and specialist emergency department settings; however, variety exists in policy and actual practice. Achieving insertion competence is relatively uncomplicated following minimal preparation although ongoing skill maintenance is less clear. IO vascular access is associated with minimal complications although pain is a significant issue for the conscious patient especially during fluid administration. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: The IO route is clearly a valuable alternative to problematic intravascular access. However, further research, including cost effectiveness reviews, is required to gain clarity of whole acute care approaches.

Critical care capacity in Canada: results of a national cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Intensive Care Units (ICUs) provide life-supporting treatment; however, resources are limited, so demand may exceed supply in the event of pandemics, environmental disasters, or in the context of an aging population. We hypothesized that comprehensive national data on ICU resources would permit a better understanding of regional differences in system capacity. METHODS: After the 2009-2010 Influenza A (H1N1) pandemic, the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group surveyed all acute care hospitals in Canada to assess ICU capacity. Using a structured survey tool administered to physicians, respiratory therapists and nurses, we determined the number of ICU beds, ventilators, and the ability to provide specialized support for respiratory failure. RESULTS: We identified 286 hospitals with 3170 ICU beds and 4982 mechanical ventilators for critically ill patients. Twenty-two hospitals had an ICU that routinely cared for children; 15 had dedicated pediatric ICUs. Per 100,000 population, there was substantial variability in provincial capacity, with a mean of 0.9 hospitals with ICUs (provincial range 0.4-2.8), 10 ICU beds capable of providing mechanical ventilation (provincial range 6-19), and 15 invasive mechanical ventilators (provincial range 10-24). There was only moderate correlation between ventilation capacity and population size (coefficient of determination (R(2)) = 0.771). CONCLUSION: ICU resources vary widely across Canadian provinces, and during times of increased demand, may result in geographic differences in the ability to care for critically ill patients. These results highlight the need to evolve inter-jurisdictional resource sharing during periods of substantial increase in demand, and provide background data for the development of appropriate critical care capacity benchmarks.

Extracting kinetic information from human motor cortical signals.

Brain machine interfaces (BMIs) have the potential to provide intuitive control of neuroprostheses to restore grasp to patients with paralyzed or amputated upper limbs. For these neuroprostheses to function, the ability to accurately control grasp force is critical. Grasp force can be decoded from neuronal spikes in monkeys, and hand kinematics can be decoded using electrocorticogram (ECoG) signals recorded from the surface of the human motor cortex. We hypothesized that kinetic information about grasping could also be extracted from ECoG, and sought to decode continuously-graded grasp force. In this study, we decoded isometric pinch force with high accuracy from ECoG in 10 human subjects. The predicted signals explained from 22% to 88% (60 ± 6%, mean ± SE) of the variance in the actual force generated. We also decoded muscle activity in the finger flexors, with similar accuracy to force decoding. We found that high gamma band and time domain features of the ECoG signal were most informative about kinetics, similar to our previous findings with intracortical LFPs. In addition, we found that peak cortical representations of force applied by the index and little fingers were separated by only about 4mm. Thus, ECoG can be used to decode not only kinematics, but also kinetics of movement. This is an important step toward restoring intuitively-controlled grasp to impaired patients.

Breast self-examination beliefs and practices, ethnicity, and health literacy: Implications for health education to reduce disparities.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to quantitatively and qualitatively examine breast cancer screening practices, including breast self-examination (BSE), and health literacy among patients with chronic disease. DESIGN: A prospective, multi-method study conducted with a targeted purposive sample of 297 patients with diabetes and/or hypertension from four ethnic groups (Latino, Vietnamese, African American, White-American) at an urban community health center. SETTING: A federally qualified health center in Western Massachusetts. METHODS: In our four-year study, 297 participants completed cancer knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and screening utilization scales and measures of health literacy. In addition to survey data collection, we conducted in-depth interviews, focus groups, home visits, and chronic disease diaries (n=71). RESULTS: In focus groups, African American, Vietnamese and Latina participants offered interviewers an unprompted demonstration of BSE, reported regular BSE use at particular times of the month, and shared positive feelings about the screening method. In a sample where approximately 93% of women have had a mammogram, many also had performed BSE (85.2%). Women with adequate health literacy were more likely than those with inadequate health literacy to rely on it. Despite being positively inclined toward BSE, Vietnamese women, who had the lowest health literacy scores in our sample, were less likely to perform BSE regularly. CONCLUSIONS: BSE seemed to be an appealing self-care practice for many women in our study, but we conclude that proper BSE practices may not be reinforced equally across ethnic groups and among patients with low health literacy.