Relationships Between Soil Microbial Diversities Across an Aridity Gradient in Temperate Grasslands : Soil Microbial Diversity Relationships.

Soil microbes assemble in highly complex and diverse microbial communities, and microbial diversity patterns and their drivers have been studied extensively. However, diversity correlations and co-occurrence patterns between bacterial, fungal, and archaeal domains and between microbial functional groups in arid regions remain poorly understood. Here we assessed the relationships between the diversity and abundance of bacteria, fungi, and archaea and explored how environmental factors influence these relationships. We sampled soil along a 1500-km-long aridity gradient in temperate grasslands of Inner Mongolia (China) and sequenced the 16S rRNA gene of bacteria and archaea and the ITS2 gene of fungi. The diversity correlations and co-occurrence patterns between bacterial, fungal, and archaeal domains and between different microbial functional groups were evaluated using α-diversity and co-occurrence networks based on microbial abundance. Our results indicate insignificant correlations among the diversity patterns of bacterial, fungal, and archaeal domains using α-diversity but mostly positive correlations among diversity patterns of microbial functional groups based on α-diversity and co-occurrence networks along the aridity gradient. These results suggest that studying microbial diversity patterns from the perspective of functional groups and co-occurrence networks can provide additional insights on patterns that cannot be accessed using only overall microbial α-diversity. Increase in aridity weakens the diversity correlations between bacteria and fungi and between bacterial and archaeal functional groups, but strengthens the positive diversity correlations between bacterial functional groups and between fungal functional groups and the negative diversity correlations between bacterial and fungal functional groups. These variations of the diversity correlations are associated with the different responses of microbes to environmental factors, especially aridity. Our findings demonstrate the complex responses of microbial community structure to environmental conditions (especially aridity) and suggest that understanding diversity correlations and co-occurrence patterns between soil microbial groups is essential for predicting changes in microbial communities under future climate change in arid regions.

Comparison of structural variants in the whole genome sequences of two Medicago truncatula ecotypes: Jemalong A17 and R108.

BACKGROUND: Structural variants (SVs) constitute a large proportion of the genomic variation that results in phenotypic variation in plants. However, they are still a largely unexplored feature in most plant genomes. Here, we present the whole-genome landscape of SVs between two model legume Medicago truncatula ecotypes-Jemalong A17 and R108- that have been extensively used in various legume biology studies. RESULTS: To catalogue SVs, we first resolved the previously published R108 genome assembly (R108 v1.0) to chromosome-scale using 124 × Hi-C data, resulting in a high-quality genome assembly. The inter-chromosomal reciprocal translocations between chromosomes 4 and 8 were confirmed by performing syntenic analysis between the two genomes. Combined with the Hi-C data, it appears that these translocation events had a significant effect on chromatin organization. Using both whole-genome and short-read alignments, we identified the genomic landscape of SVs between the two genomes, some of which may account for several phenotypic differences, including their differential responses to aluminum toxicity and iron deficiency, and the development of different anthocyanin leaf markings. We also found extensive SVs within the nodule-specific cysteine-rich gene family which encodes antimicrobial peptides essential for terminal bacteroid differentiation during nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide a near-complete R108 genome assembly and the first genomic landscape of SVs obtained by comparing two M. truncatula ecotypes. This may provide valuable genomic resources for the functional and molecular research of legume biology in the future.

Species divergence with gene flow and hybrid speciation on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) sensu lato (sl), comprising the platform, the Himalaya and the Hengduan Mountains, is characterized by a large number of endemic plant species. This evolutionary cradle may have arisen from explosive species diversification because of geographic isolation. However, gene flow has been widely detected during the speciation processes of all groups examined, suggesting that natural selection may have also played an important role during species divergence in this region. In addition, natural hybrids have been recovered in almost all species-rich genera. This suggests that numerous species in this region are still 'on the speciation pathway to complete reproductive isolation (RI)'. Such hybrids could directly develop into new species through hybrid polyploidization and homoploid hybrid speciation (HHS). HHS may take place more easily than previously thought through alternate inheritance of alleles of parents at multiple RI loci. Therefore, isolation, selection and hybridization could together have promoted species diversification of numerous plant genera on the QTP sl. We emphasize the need for identification and functional analysis of alleles of major genes for speciation, and especially encourage investigations of parallel adaptive divergence causing RI across different lineages within similar but specific habitats in this region.

Extensive genomic rearrangements mediated by repetitive sequences in plastomes of Medicago and its relatives.

BACKGROUND: Although plastomes are highly conserved with respect to gene content and order in most photosynthetic angiosperms, extensive genomic rearrangements have been reported in Fabaceae, particularly within the inverted repeat lacking clade (IRLC) of Papilionoideae. Two hypotheses, i.e., the absence of the IR and the increased repeat content, have been proposed to affect the stability of plastomes. However, this is still unclear for the IRLC species. Here, we aimed to investigate the relationships between repeat content and the degree of genomic rearrangements in plastomes of Medicago and its relatives Trigonella and Melilotus, which are nested firmly within the IRLC. RESULTS: We detected abundant repetitive elements and extensive genomic rearrangements in the 75 newly assembled plastomes of 20 species, including gene loss, intron loss and gain, pseudogenization, tRNA duplication, inversion, and a second independent IR gain (IR ~ 15 kb in Melilotus dentata) in addition to the previous first reported cases in Medicago minima. We also conducted comparative genomic analysis to evaluate plastome evolution. Our results indicated that the overall repeat content is positively correlated with the degree of genomic rearrangements. Some of the genomic rearrangements were found to be directly linked with repetitive sequences. Tandem repeated sequences have been detected in the three genes with accelerated substitution rates (i.e., accD, clpP, and ycf1) and their length variation could be explained by the insertions of tandem repeats. The repeat contents of the three localized hypermutation regions around these three genes with accelerated substitution rates are also significantly higher than that of the remaining plastome sequences. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that IR reemergence in the IRLC species does not ensure their plastome stability. Instead, repeat-mediated illegitimate recombination is the major mechanism leading to genome instability, a pattern in agreement with recent findings in other angiosperm lineages. The plastome data generated herein provide valuable genomic resources for further investigating the plastome evolution in legumes.

Leaf size of woody dicots predicts ecosystem primary productivity.

A key challenge in ecology is to understand the relationships between organismal traits and ecosystem processes. Here, with a novel dataset of leaf length and width for 10 480 woody dicots in China and 2374 in North America, we show that the variation in community mean leaf size is highly correlated with the variation in climate and ecosystem primary productivity, independent of plant life form. These relationships likely reflect how natural selection modifies leaf size across varying climates in conjunction with how climate influences canopy total leaf area. We find that the leaf size-primary productivity functions based on the Chinese dataset can predict productivity in North America and vice-versa. In addition to advancing understanding of the relationship between a climate-driven trait and ecosystem functioning, our findings suggest that leaf size can also be a promising tool in palaeoecology for scaling from fossil leaves to palaeo-primary productivity of woody ecosystems.

Niche conservatism and elevated diversification shape species diversity in drylands: evidence from Zygophyllaceae.

The integrated contributions of climate and macroevolutionary processes to global patterns of species diversity are still controversial in spite of a long history of studies. The niche conservatism hypothesis and the net diversification rate hypothesis have gained wide attention in recent literature. Many studies have tested these two hypotheses for woody species in humid forests; however, the determinants of species diversity patterns for arid-adapted plants remain largely ignored. Here, using a molecular phylogeny and the global distributions of Zygophyllaceae, a typical arid-adapted plant family, we assessed the effects of contemporary climate and net diversification rates on species diversity patterns in drylands. We found the variables representing water availability to be the best predictors for Zygophyllaceae diversity. Specifically, Zygophyllaceae species diversity significantly decreased with the increase in water availability, probably owing to phylogenetic conservatism of water-related niches. The net diversification rates of Zygophyllaceae accelerated sharply in the recent 10 Myr, coinciding roughly with the period of global aridification. The species diversity of Zygophyllaceae significantly increased with the increase in mean net diversification rates per geographical unit, especially in the Old World, supporting the net diversification rate hypothesis. Our study provides a case exploring climatic and evolutionary mechanisms of dryland species diversity patterns, and suggests that the conservatism in water-related niches and elevated net diversification rates in drylands may have jointly determined the global patterns of dryland species diversity.

Global multifaceted biodiversity patterns, centers, and conservation needs in angiosperms.

The Convention on Biological Diversity seeks to conserve at least 30% of global land and water areas by 2030, which is a challenge but also an opportunity to better preserve biodiversity, including flowering plants (angiosperms). Herein, we compiled a large database on distributions of over 300,000 angiosperm species and the key functional traits of 67,024 species. Using this database, we constructed biodiversity-environment models to predict global patterns of taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity in terrestrial angiosperms and provide a comprehensive mapping of the three diversity facets. We further evaluated the current protection status of the biodiversity centers of these diversity facets. Our results showed that geographical patterns of the three facets of plant diversity exhibited substantial spatial mismatches and nonoverlapping conservation priorities. Idiosyncratic centers of functional diversity, particularly of herbaceous species, were primarily distributed in temperate regions and under weaker protection compared with other biodiversity centers of taxonomic and phylogenetic facets. Our global assessment of multifaceted biodiversity patterns and centers highlights the insufficiency and unbalanced conservation among the three diversity facets and the two growth forms (woody vs. herbaceous), thus providing directions for guiding the future conservation of global plant diversity.

Incorporating global change reveals extinction risk beyond the current Red List.

Global changes over the past few decades have caused species distribution shifts and triggered population declines and local extinctions of many species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (Red List) is regarded as the most comprehensive tool for assessing species extinction risk and has been used at regional, national, and global scales. However, most Red Lists rely on the past and current status of species populations and distributions but do not adequately reflect the risks induced by future global changes. Using distribution maps of >4,000 endemic woody species in China, combined with ensembled species distribution models, we assessed the species threat levels under future climate and land-cover changes using the projected changes in species' suitable habitats and compared our updated Red List with China's existing Red List. We discover an increased number of threatened species in the updated Red List and increased threat levels of >50% of the existing threatened species compared with the existing one. Over 50% of the newly identified threatened species are not adequately covered by protected areas. The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, rather than the Hengduan Mountains, is the distribution center of threatened species on the updated Red Lists, as opposed to the threatened species on the existing Red List. Our findings suggest that using Red Lists without considering the impacts of future global changes will underestimate the extinction risks and lead to a biased estimate of conservation priorities, potentially limiting the ability to meet the Kunming-Montreal global conservation targets.

Variations and driving factors of leaf functional traits in the dominant desert plant species along an environmental gradient in the drylands of China.

Leaf functional traits (LFTs) of desert plants are responsive, adaptable and highly plastic to their environment. However, the macroscale variation in LFTs and driving factors underlying this variation remain unclear, especially for desert plants. Here, we measured eight LFTs, including leaf carbon concentration (LCC), leaf nitrogen concentration (LNC), leaf phosphorus concentration (LPC), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), leaf mass per area (LMA), leaf thickness (LTH) and leaf tissue density (LTD) across 114 sites along environmental gradient in the drylands of China and in Guazhou Common Garden and evaluated the effect of environment and phylogeny on the LFTs. We noted that for all species, the mean values of LCC, LNC, LPC, SLA, LDMC, LMA, LTH and LTD were 384.62 mg g-1, 19.91 mg g-1, 1.12 mg g-1, 79.62 cm2 g-1, 0.74 g g-1, 237.39 g m-2, 0.38 mm and 0.91 g cm-3, respectively. LFTs exhibited significant geographical variations and the LNC, LMA and LTH in the plants of Guazhou Common Garden were significantly higher than the field sites in the drylands of China. LDMC and LTD of plants in Guazhou Common Garden were, however, considerably lower than those in the drylands of China. LCC, LPC, LTH and LTD differed significantly among different plant lifeforms, while LNC, SLA, LDMC and LMA didn't show significant variations. We found that the environmental variables explained higher spatial variations (3.6-66.3 %) in LFTs than the phylogeny (1.8-54.2 %). The LCC significantly increased, while LDMC and LTD decreased with increased temperature and reduced precipitation. LPC, LDMC, LMA, and LTD significantly increased, while SLA and LTH decreased with increased aridity. However, leaf elements were not significantly correlated with soil nutrients. The mean annual precipitation was a key factor controlling variations in LFTs at the macroscale in the drylands of China. These findings will provide new insights to better understand the response of LFTs and plants adaptation along environmental gradient in drylands, and will serve as a reference for studying biogeographic patterns of leaf traits.

An updated floristic map of the world.

Floristic regions reflect the geographic organization of floras and provide essential tools for biological studies. Previous global floristic regions are generally based on floristic endemism, lacking a phylogenetic consideration that captures floristic evolution. Moreover, the contribution of tectonic dynamics and historical and current climate to the division of floristic regions remains unknown. Here, by integrating global distributions and a phylogeny of 12,664 angiosperm genera, we update global floristic regions and explore their temporal changes. Eight floristic realms and 16 nested sub-realms are identified. The previously-defined Holarctic, Neotropical and Australian realms are recognized, but Paleotropical, Antarctic and Cape realms are not. Most realms have formed since Paleogene. Geographic isolation induced by plate tectonics dominates the formation of floristic realms, while current/historical climate has little contribution. Our study demonstrates the necessity of integrating distributions and phylogenies in regionalizing floristic realms and the interplay of macroevolutionary and paleogeographic processes in shaping regional floras.

Diversification of flowering plants in space and time.

The rapid diversification and high species richness of flowering plants is regarded as 'Darwin's second abominable mystery'. Today the global spatiotemporal pattern of plant diversification remains elusive. Using a newly generated genus-level phylogeny and global distribution data for 14,244 flowering plant genera, we describe the diversification dynamics of angiosperms through space and time. Our analyses show that diversification rates increased throughout the early Cretaceous and then slightly decreased or remained mostly stable until the end of the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction event 66 million years ago. After that, diversification rates increased again towards the present. Younger genera with high diversification rates dominate temperate and dryland regions, whereas old genera with low diversification dominate the tropics. This leads to a negative correlation between spatial patterns of diversification and genus diversity. Our findings suggest that global changes since the Cenozoic shaped the patterns of flowering plant diversity and support an emerging consensus that diversification rates are higher outside the tropics.

Phylogenetic independence in the variations in leaf functional traits among different plant life forms in an arid environment.

Leaf traits of global plants reveal the fundamental trade-offs in plant resource acquisition to conservation strategies. However, which leaf traits are consistent, converged, or diverged among herbs, shrubs, and subshrubs in an arid environment remains unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the trade-offs in six leaf functional traits (LFTs): leaf fresh mass (LFM), leaf dry mass (LDM), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf thickness (LTh) of 37 desert plant species. LFTs differed between different plant life forms; LFM, LDM, and LA were slightly higher in herbs, LDMC and LTh in shrubs, and SLA in subshrubs. Conversely, the correlations among LFTs were inconsistent in different life forms, which may indicate their different adaptation strategies in an arid environment. Legumes and C3 plants exhibited slightly higher LDMC, LA, and SLA than non-legumes and C4 plants, whereas non-legumes and C4 plants showed higher (nonsignificant) LFM, LDM, and LTh than legumes and C3 plants. A significant phylogenetic signal (PS) and maximum K-value were found for SLA (K = 0.32). LFTs exhibited convergent and divergent variations among different life forms. However, these variations in LFTs were not influenced by phylogeny. Together, these findings increase our understanding of the variations in ecological adaptations of desert plants as well as adaption strategies of different life forms in an arid environment.

Genomes and demographic histories of the endangered Bretschneidera sinensis (Akaniaceae).

BACKGROUND: Bretschneidera sinensis is an endangered relic tree species in the Akaniaceae family and is sporadically distributed in eastern Asia. As opposed to its current narrow and rare distribution, the fossil pollen of B. sinensis has been found to be frequent and widespread in the Northern Hemisphere during the Late Miocene. B. sinensis is also a typical mycorrhizal plant, and its annual seedlings exhibit high mortality rates in absence of mycorrhizal development. The chromosome-level high-quality genome of B. sinensis will help us to more deeply understand the survival and demographic histories of this relic species. RESULTS: A total of 25.39 Gb HiFi reads and 109.17 Gb Hi-C reads were used to construct the chromosome-level genome of B. sinensis, which is 1.21 Gb in length with the contig N50 of 64.13 Mb and chromosome N50 of 146.54 Mb. The identified transposable elements account for 55.21% of the genome. A total of 45,839 protein-coding genes were predicted in B. sinensis. A lineage-specific whole-genome duplication was detected, and 7,283 lineage-specific expanded gene families with functions related to the specialized endotrophic mycorrhizal adaptation were identified. The historical effective population size (Ne) of B. sinensis was found to oscillate greatly in response to Quaternary climatic changes. The Ne of B. sinensis has decreased rapidly in the recent past, making its extant Ne extremely lower. Our additional evolutionary genomic analyses suggested that the developed mycorrhizal adaption might have been repeatedly disrupted by environmental changes caused by Quaternary climatic oscillations. The environmental changes and an already decreased population size during the Holocene may have led to the current rarity of B. sinensis. CONCLUSION: This is a detailed report of the genome sequences for the family Akaniaceae distributed in evergreen forests in eastern Asia. Such a high-quality genomic resource may provide critical clues for comparative genomics studies of this family in the future.

Pervasive hybridization during evolutionary radiation of Rhododendron subgenus Hymenanthes in mountains of southwest China.

Radiations are especially important for generating species biodiversity in mountainous ecosystems. The contribution of hybridization to such radiations has rarely been examined. Here, we use extensive genomic data to test whether hybridization was involved in evolutionary radiation within Rhododendron subgenus Hymenanthes, whose members show strong geographic isolation in the mountains of southwest China. We sequenced genomes for 143 species of this subgenus and 93 species of four other subgenera, and found that Hymenanthes was monophyletic and radiated during the late Oligocene to middle Miocene. Widespread hybridization events were inferred within and between the identified clades and subclades. This suggests that hybridization occurred both early and late during diversification of subgenus Hymenanthes, although the extent to which hybridization, speciation through mixing-isolation-mixing or hybrid speciation, accelerated the diversification needs further exploration. Cycles of isolation and contact in such and other montane ecosystems may have together promoted species radiation through hybridization between diverging populations and species. Similar radiation processes may apply to other montane floras in this region and elsewhere.

Vulnerabilities of protected lands in the face of climate and human footprint changes.

Protected areas (PAs) play a pivotal role in maintaining viable populations of species and minimizing their habitat loss. Globally, there are currently over 200,000 PAs that cover approximately 15% of land area. The post-2020 global biodiversity framework aims to expand this coverage to 30% by 2030. However, focusing only on the percentage coverage of PAs without evaluating their effectiveness may fail to achieve conservation goals. Here, we use a multidimensional approach incorporating species, climate and anthropogenic vulnerabilities to assess the threat levels in over 2500 PAs in China. We identify nearly 10% of PAs as the most threatened PAs in China and about one-fifth PAs as hotspots of climate and anthropogenic vulnerabilities. We also find high climate instability in species vulnerability hotspots, suggesting an elevated likelihood of species' extirpation therein. Our framework could be useful in assessing resiliency of global protected lands and also in selecting near optimal areas for their future expansion.

Species Identification in the Rhododendron vernicosum-R. decorum Species Complex (Ericaceae).

Delimitating species boundaries is the primary aim of biological classification and could be critical for evaluating the evolving process of species and conserving biodiversity. Rhododendron is an iconic group with an extraordinary diversity in southwest China. However, it remains unknown whether the recorded species therein comprise independently evolving lineages or artificially delimitated morphological entities. In this study, we carried out species delimitation of four Rhododendron species in the R. vernicosum-R. decorum species complex based on morphological analyses and population genetic data from nuclear simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. We randomly selected a total of 105 specimens of different individuals identified as four species across their distributional ranges to examine the statistically distinct phenotypic clusters based on 19 morphological traits. Similarly, we genotyped 55 individuals of four species from 21 populations using 15 SSR markers. The morphological analyses sorted R. decorum and the other three species into two different phenotypic clusters. The genetic clusters were consistent with the morphological clusters. However, we also recovered the third genetic cluster, comprising six R. vernicosum populations and containing the admixed genetic compositions of the other two distinct genetic clusters. This hybrid group was morphologically similar to the typical R. vernicosum (including the samples from its type specimen locality and both R. verruciferum and R. gonggashanense) but with more genetic ancestry from R. decorum. Based on our findings, we identify two distinct species and one putative hybrid group due to introgression in the R. vernicosum-R. decorum species complex. We propose to merge R. verruciferum and R. gonggashanense into R. vernicosum based on genetic compositions and our morphological analyses. The hybrid group inferred from our findings, however, needs further investigations.

The Chloranthus sessilifolius genome provides insight into early diversification of angiosperms.

Most extant angiosperms belong to Mesangiospermae, which comprises eudicots, monocots, magnoliids, Chloranthales and Ceratophyllales. However, phylogenetic relationships between these five lineages remain unclear. Here, we report the high-quality genome of a member of the Chloranthales lineage (Chloranthus sessilifolius). We detect only one whole genome duplication within this species and find that polyploidization events in different Mesangiospermae lineage are mutually independent. We also find that the members of all floral development-related gene lineages are present in C. sessilifolius despite its extremely simplified flower. The AP1 and PI genes, however, show a weak floral tissue-specialized expression. Our phylogenomic analyses suggest that Chloranthales and magnoliids are sister groups, and both are together sister to the clade comprising Ceratophyllales and eudicots, while the monocot lineage is sister to all other Mesangiospermae. Our findings suggest that in addition to hybridization, incomplete lineage sorting may largely account for phylogenetic inconsistencies between the observed gene trees.

Upward shift and elevational range contractions of subtropical mountain plants in response to climate change.

Elevational range shifts of mountain species in response to climate change have profound impact on mountain biodiversity. However, current evidence indicates great controversies in the direction and magnitude of elevational range shifts across species and regions. Here, using historical and recent occurrence records of 83 plant species in a subtropical mountain, Mt. Gongga (Sichuan, China), we evaluated changes in species elevation centroids and limits (upper and lower) along elevational gradients, and explored the determinants of elevational changes. We found that 63.9% of the species shifted their elevation centroids upward, while 22.9% shifted downward. The changes in centroid elevations and range size were more strongly correlated with changes in lower than upper limits of species elevational ranges. The magnitude of centroid elevation shifts was larger than predicted by climate warming and precipitation changes. Our results show complex changes in species elevational distributions and range sizes in Mt. Gongga, and that climate change, species traits and climate adaptation of species all influenced their elevational movement. As Mt. Gongga is one of the global biodiversity hotspots, and contains many threatened plant species, these findings provide support to future conservation planning.

Whole-Genome Diversification Analysis of the Hornbeam Species Reveals Speciation and Adaptation Among Closely Related Species.

Speciation is the key evolutionary process for generating biological diversity and has a central place in evolutionary and ecological research. How species diverge and adapt to different habitats is one of the most exciting areas in speciation studies. Here, we sequenced 55 individuals from three closely related species in the genus Carpinus: Carpinus tibetana, Carpinus monbeigiana, and Carpinus mollicoma to understand the strength and direction of gene flow and selection during the speciation process. We found low genetic diversity in C. tibetana, which reflects its extremely small effective population size. The speciation analysis between C. monbeigiana and C. mollicoma revealed that both species diverged ∼1.2 Mya with bidirectional gene flow. A total of 291 highly diverged genes, 223 copy number variants genes, and 269 positive selected genes were recovered from the two species. Genes associated with the diverged and positively selected regions were mainly involved in thermoregulation, plant development, and response to stress, which included adaptations to their habitats. We also found a great population decline and a low genetic divergence of C. tibetana, which suggests that this species is extremely vulnerable. We believe that the current diversification and adaption study and the important genomic resource sequenced herein will facilitate the speciation studies and serve as an important methodological reference for future research.

A chromosome-level genome assembly for the tertiary relict plant Tetracentron sinense oliv. (trochodendraceae).

Tetracentron sinense and Trochodendron aralioides are two Tertiary relict species of large trees in the family Trochodendraceae with narrow distributions on the mainland and islands of eastern Asia. They belong to the order Trochodendrales, which is one of the four early-diverged eudicot lineages. These two relict species provide a good system in which to examine genomic changes that occurred as they survived during repeated climatic oscillations in the Quaternary. We sequenced the genome of Te. sinense and compared it with that of Tr. aralioides. We found that Te. sinense has a smaller genome size (986.3 Mb) than that of Tr. aralioides (1610 Mb). Repetitive elements made the major contribution to the contrasting genome sizes in the two species, with most bursts of repeats occurring within the past four million years when the climate oscillated greatly. These species share two rounds of whole-genome duplications. The mainland species Te. sinense had a larger effective population size than the island species Tr. aralioides after the largest glaciation during the Quaternary climatic oscillation. However, soon after this recovery stage, the effective population sizes of both species continued to decrease, although the current effective population size of Te. sinense is still larger than that of Tr. aralioides. We recovered three distinctly diverged clades through resequencing the genomes of 50 individuals across the distributional range of Te. sinense in China. Our results provide an important genomic resource with which to examine early trait evolution in the core eudicots and assist efforts to conserve this relict tree species.