Alkyl Amine Bevirimat Derivatives Are Potent and Broadly Active HIV-1 Maturation Inhibitors.

Concomitant with the release of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles from the infected cell, the viral protease cleaves the Gag polyprotein precursor at a number of sites to trigger virus maturation. We previously reported that a betulinic acid-derived compound, bevirimat (BVM), blocks HIV-1 maturation by disrupting a late step in protease-mediated Gag processing: the cleavage of the capsid-spacer peptide 1 (CA-SP1) intermediate to mature CA. BVM was shown in multiple clinical trials to be safe and effective in reducing viral loads in HIV-1-infected patients. However, naturally occurring polymorphisms in the SP1 region of Gag (e.g., SP1-V7A) led to a variable response in some BVM-treated patients. The reduced susceptibility of SP1-polymorphic HIV-1 to BVM resulted in the discontinuation of its clinical development. To overcome the loss of BVM activity induced by polymorphisms in SP1, we carried out an extensive medicinal chemistry campaign to develop novel maturation inhibitors. In this study, we focused on alkyl amine derivatives modified at the C-28 position of the BVM scaffold. We identified a set of derivatives that are markedly more potent than BVM against an HIV-1 clade B clone (NL4-3) and show robust antiviral activity against a variant of NL4-3 containing the V7A polymorphism in SP1. One of the most potent of these compounds also strongly inhibited a multiclade panel of primary HIV-1 isolates. These data demonstrate that C-28 alkyl amine derivatives of BVM can, to a large extent, overcome the loss of susceptibility imposed by polymorphisms in SP1.

Molecular basis for failure of "atypical" C1 domain of Vav1 to bind diacylglycerol/phorbol ester.

C1 domains, the recognition motif of the second messenger diacylglycerol and of the phorbol esters, are classified as typical (ligand-responsive) or atypical (not ligand-responsive). The C1 domain of Vav1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, plays a critical role in regulation of Vav activity through stabilization of the Dbl homology domain, which is responsible for exchange activity of Vav. Although the C1 domain of Vav1 is classified as atypical, it retains a binding pocket geometry homologous to that of the typical C1 domains of PKCs. This study clarifies the basis for its failure to bind ligands. Substituting Vav1-specific residues into the C1b domain of PKCδ, we identified five crucial residues (Glu(9), Glu(10), Thr(11), Thr(24), and Tyr(26)) along the rim of the binding cleft that weaken binding potency in a cumulative fashion. Reciprocally, replacing these incompatible residues in the Vav1 C1 domain with the corresponding residues from PKCδ C1b (δC1b) conferred high potency for phorbol ester binding. Computer modeling predicts that these unique residues in Vav1 increase the hydrophilicity of the rim of the binding pocket, impairing membrane association and thereby preventing formation of the ternary C1-ligand-membrane binding complex. The initial design of diacylglycerol-lactones to exploit these Vav1 unique residues showed enhanced selectivity for C1 domains incorporating these residues, suggesting a strategy for the development of ligands targeting Vav1.

N-methyl-substituted fluorescent DAG-indololactone isomers exhibit dramatic differences in membrane interactions and biological activity.

N-methyl-substituted diacylglycerol-indololactones (DAG-indololactones) are newly synthesized effectors of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms and exhibit substantial selectivity between RasGRP3 and PKCα. We present a comprehensive analysis of membrane interactions and biological activities of several DAG-indololactones. Translocation and binding activity assays underline significant variations between the PKC translocation characteristics affected by the ligands as compared to their binding activities. In parallel, the fluorescent properties of the ligands were employed for analysis of their membrane association profiles. Specifically, we found that a slight change in the linkage to the indole ring resulted in significant differences in membrane binding and association of the DAG-indololactones with lipid bilayers. Our analysis shows that seemingly small structural modifications of the hydrophobic regions of these biomimetic PKC effectors contribute to pronounced modulation of membrane interactions of the ligands.

Membrane-surface anchoring of charged diacylglycerol-lactones correlates with biological activities.

Synthetic diacylglycerol-lactones (DAG-lactones) are effective modulators of critical cellular signaling pathways, downstream of the lipophilic second messenger diacylglycerol, that activate a host of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes and other nonkinase proteins that share similar C1 membrane-targeting domains with PKC. A fundamental determinant of the biological activity of these amphiphilic molecules is the nature of their interactions with cellular membranes. This study examines the biological properties of charged DAG-lactones exhibiting different alkyl groups attached to the heterocyclic nitrogen of an α-pyridylalkylidene chain, and particularly the relationship between membrane interactions of the substituted DAG-lactones and their respective biological activities. Our results suggest that bilayer interface localization of the N-alkyl chain in the R(2) position of the DAG-lactones inhibits translocation of PKC isoenzymes onto the cellular membrane. However, the orientation of a branched alkyl chain at the bilayer surface facilitates PKC binding and translocation. This investigation emphasizes that bilayer localization of the aromatic side residues of positively charged DAG-lactone derivatives play a central role in determining biological activity, and that this factor contributes to the diversity of biological actions of these synthetic biomimetic ligands.

Botryllamide G is an ABCG2 inhibitor that improves lapatinib delivery in mouse brain.

Introduction: Transporters comprising the blood-brain barrier complicate delivery of many therapeutics to the central nervous system. The present study ascertained whether the natural product botryllamide G is viable for in vivo inhibition of ABCG2 using lapatinib as a probe for ABCB1 and ABCG2-mediated efflux from the brain. Methods: Wild-type and Mdr1a/Mdr1b (-/-) mice were treated with botryllamide G and lapatinib ("doublet therapy"), and while a separate cohort of wild-type mice was treated with botryllamide, tariquidar and lapatinib ("triplet therapy"). Results: Botryllamide G demonstrates biphasic elimination with a rapid distribution, decreasing below the in vitro IC50 of 6.9 µM within minutes, yet with a relatively slower terminal half-life (4.6 h). In Mdr1a/Mdr1b (-/-) mice, doublet therapy resulted in a significant increase in brain lapatinib AUC at 8 h (2058 h*ng/mL vs 4007 h*ng/mL; P = .031), but not plasma exposure (P = .15). No significant differences were observed after 24 h. Lapatinib brain exposure was greater through 1 h when wild-type mice were administered triplet therapy (298 h*pg/mg vs 120 h*pg/mg; P < .001), but the triplet decreased brain AUC through 24 h vs. mice administered lapatinib alone (2878 h*pg/mg vs 4461hr*ng/mL; P < .001) and did not alter the brain:plasma ratio. Conclusions: In summary, the ABCG2 inhibitor, botryllamide G, increases brain exposure to lapatinib in mice lacking Abcb1, although the combination of botryllamide G and tariquidar increases brain exposure in wild-type mice only briefly (1 h). Additional research is needed to find analogs of this compound that have better pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects on ABCG2 inhibition.

Ceramides: branched alkyl chains in the sphingolipid siblings of diacylglycerol improve biological potency.

The synthesis of a small number of ceramide analogues containing a combination of linear and highly branched alkyl chains on either the d-sphingosine or the N-acyl core of the molecule is reported. Regardless of location, the presence of the branched chain improves potency relative to the positive control, C2 ceramide; however, the most potent compound (4) has the branched side chain as part of the d-sphingosine core. The induction of apoptosis by 4 in terms of Annexin V binding and DiOC(6) labeling was superior to that achieved with C2 ceramide.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol (DAG). 28. DAG-dioxolanones reveal a new additional interaction site in the C1b domain of PKC delta.

Diacylglycerol (DAG) lactones have provided a powerful platform for structural exploration of the interactions between ligands and the C1 domains of protein kinase C (PKC). In this study, we report that DAG-dioxolanones, novel derivatives of DAG-lactones, exploit an additional point of contact (glutamine 27) in their binding with the C1b domain of PKC delta. Mutation of this point of contact to glutamate selectively impairs binding of the DAG-dioxolanones compared to that of the corresponding DAG-lactones (1200- to 3000-fold versus 35- to 55-fold, respectively). The differential response of this mutated C1b domain to the DAG-dioxolanones relative to the DAG-lactones provides a unique tool to probe the role of the C1b domain in PKC delta function, where the response to the DAG-lactones affords a positive control for retained function. Using this approach, we show that the C1b domain of PKC delta plays the predominant role in the translocation of PKC delta to the membrane in the presence of DAG.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol (DAG). 27. Modulation of membrane translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes alpha and delta by diacylglycerol lactones (DAG-lactones) containing rigid-rod acyl groups.

Highly rigid and geometrically well-defined rods composed of ethynylene-substituted aromatic spacers [oligo(p-phenyleneethynylene), OPE] were incorporated as acyl moieties on diacylglycerol lactones (DAG-lactones) and investigated for their ability to bind to protein kinase C (PKC) and translocate PKC alpha and delta isoforms to plasma and internal membranes. The kinetics of PKC translocation were correlated with biological responses, viz. ERK phosphorylation, induction of IL-6 secretion, inhibition of cell proliferation, and induction of cellular attachment, that display very different time courses. Because OPE rods assemble through noncovalent forces and form stable films, they may influence the microdomain environment around the DAG-lactone membrane-binding site. A comparison of two DAG-lactones (1 and 10), one with two PE units (1) and the other with an equivalent flexible acyl chain (10) of matching lipophilicity, clearly demonstrated the effect of the rigid OPE chain in substantially prolonging the translocated state of both PKC alpha and delta.

Infectious Entry and Neutralization of Pathogenic JC Polyomaviruses.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a lethal brain disease caused by uncontrolled replication of JC polyomavirus (JCV). JCV strains recovered from the brains of PML patients carry mutations that prevent the engagement of sialylated glycans, which are thought to serve as receptors for the infectious entry of wild-type JCV. In this report, we show that non-sialylated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) can serve as alternative attachment receptors for the infectious entry of both wild-type and PML mutant JCV strains. After GAG-mediated attachment, PML mutant strains engage non-sialylated non-GAG co-receptor glycans, such as asialo-GM1. JCV-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies isolated from patients who recovered from PML appear to block infection by preventing the docking of post-attachment co-receptor glycans in an apical pocket of the JCV major capsid protein. Identification of the GAG-dependent/sialylated glycan-independent alternative entry pathway should facilitate the development of infection inhibitors, including recombinant neutralizing antibodies.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol. 26. Exploring the chemical space surrounding the C1 domain of protein kinase C with DAG-lactones containing aryl groups at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions.

Diacylglycerol lactones (DAG-lactones) are known to operate as effective agonists of protein kinase C (PKC), surpassing in potency the activity of natural diacylglycerol (DAG). Localization of activated PKC isozymes in the cell is determined in part by the different cellular scaffolds, the lipid composition of the specific membranes, and the targeting information intrinsic to the individual isoforms bound to DAG. This multifaceted control of diversity suggests that, to develop effective DAG-lactones capable of honing in on a specific cellular target, we need to gain a better understanding of the chemical space surrounding its binding site. Seeking to augment the chemical repertoire of DAG-lactone side chains that could steer the translocation of PKC to specific cellular domains, we report herein the effects of incorporating simple or substituted phenyl residues. A combined series of n-alkyl and phenyl substitutions were used to explore the optimal location of the phenyl group on the side chains. The substantial differences in binding affinity between DAG-lactones with identical functionalized phenyl groups at either the sn-1 or sn-2 position are consistent with the proposed binding model in which the DAG-lactone binds to the C1 domain of PKC with the acyl chain oriented toward the interior of the membrane and the alpha-alkylidene or alpha-arylalkylidene chains directed to the surface of the C1 domain adjacent to the lipid interface. We conclude that DAG-lactones containing alpha-phenylalkylidene side chains at the sn-2 position represent excellent scaffolds upon which to explore further chemical diversity.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol. 20. The search for an elusive binding site on protein kinase C through relocation of the carbonyl pharmacophore along the sn-1 side chain of 1,2-diacylglycerol lactones.

Previous studies with 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG) lactones, which behave as high-affinity ligands for protein kinase C (PK-C), have established the importance of maintaining intact the pharmacophore triad of two carbonyl moieties (sn-1 and sn-2) and the primary alcohol. In addition, docking studies of DAG-lactones into an empty C1b receptor of PK-Cdelta (as it appears in complex with phorbol 13-O-acetate) have revealed that in either of the two possible binding alternatives (sn-1 or sn-2) only one carbonyl group of the DAG-lactone is involved in binding. Therefore, the unknown receptor for the orphaned carbonyl appears to lie outside the boundaries of this binary complex, possibly residing at the membrane or near the membrane-protein interface. A strategy to locate the optimal location of the unengaged carbonyl was conceived by utilizing a small group of DAG-lactones (1-4) with a highly branched chain adjacent to the sn-2 carbonyl such that sn-2 binding is favored. With these compounds, various locations of the sn-1 carbonyl along the side chain were tested for their binding affinity for PK-C. The results indicate that the location of the side chain sn-1 carbonyl in a DAG-lactone must have perfect mimicry to the sn-1 carbonyl of the parent DAG for it to display high binding affinity. A proposed model from this work is that the missing pharmacophore in the ternary complex, which includes the membrane, is close to the membrane-protein interface.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol. 21. A solid-phase method of synthesis of diacylglycerol lactones as a prelude to a combinatorial approach for the synthesis of protein kinase C isozyme-specific ligands.

A solid-phase method for the synthesis of diacylglycerol lactones as protein kinase C ligands was developed, and a small array of nine compounds were selected with the idea of testing this methodology and forecasting the reliability of the biological data as a preamble for the construction of large chemical libraries to be synthesized under the same conditions. The process started with the loading of 5-(hydroxymethyl)-5-[(4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl]-3,4,5-trihydrofuran-2-one (1) to a 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran resin packed inside IRORI MacroKan reactors. The elements of diversity were introduced at the alpha-alkylidene (R(1)) and acyl (R(2)) positions using a set of three different aldehydes and three different acid chlorides, respectively. An LDA-mediated aldol condensation with R(1)CHO in the presence of ZnCl(2) followed by a DBU-catalyzed elimination of the triflate of the resulting aldol gave the alpha-alkylidene intermediates as mixtures of geometric isomers. Removal of the aryl-protecting group followed by acylation with R(2)COCl introduced the second element of diversity. Acid-assisted cleavage of the compounds from the resin afforded the final targets. The biological results obtained using the crude samples directly obtained from the resin compared well with those from pure materials, as the K(i) values between the two sets varied only by a factor between 1.5 and 3.7.

Differential binding modes of diacylglycerol (DAG) and DAG lactones to protein kinase C (PK-C).

Diacylglycerol lactones (DAG lactones), analogous to highly potent diacylglycerols (DAGs) were synthesized to demonstrate the ability of PK-C to discriminate between two differential binding modes, sn-1 and sn-2. While both sn-1 and sn-2 binding modes are allowable in terms of hydrogen bonding, it has been found that in general, DAGs prefer to bind sn-1, while the corresponding analogous DAG lactones prefer to bind sn-2. However, this binding orientation can be directly influenced by the disposition and nature of the acyl substituent, particularly if it is highly branched. When the "binding driving force" (i.e., the larger branched acyl chain) is in the sn-2 position, a dramatic increase in binding affinity is observed in the DAG lactone as compared to its open chain DAG counterpart. As these analogous DAGs and DAG lactones have almost identical log P values, this difference in binding affinity is a direct result of the entropic advantage of constraining the glycerol backbone.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol (DAG). 23. Hydrophobic ligand-protein interactions versus ligand-lipid interactions of DAG-lactones with protein kinase C (PK-C).

The constrained glycerol backbone of DAG-lactones, when combined with highly branched alkyl chains, has engendered a series of DAG-lactone ligands capable of binding protein kinase C (PK-C) with affinities that approximate those of phorbol esters. These branched chains not only appear to be involved in making important hydrophobic contacts with the protein (specific interactions) but also provide adequate lipophilicity to facilitate partitioning into the lipid-rich membrane environment (nonspecific interactions). With the idea of minimizing the nonspecific interactions without reducing lipophilicity, the present work explores the strategy of relocating lipophilicity from the side chain to the lactone "core". Such a transfer of lipophilicity, exemplified by compounds 1 and 3, was conceived to allow the new hydrophobic groups on the lactone to engage in specific hydrophobic contacts inside the binding pocket without any expectation of interfering with the hydrogen-bonding network of the DAG-lactone pharmacophore. Surprisingly, both (E)-3 and (Z)-3 showed a significant decrease in binding affinity. From the molecular docking studies performed with the new ligands, we conclude that the binding pocket of the C1 domain of PK-C is sterically restricted and prevents the methyl groups at the C-3 position of the lactone from engaging in productive hydrophobic contacts with the receptor.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol. 24. Asymmetric synthesis of a chiral (R)-DAG-lactone template as a versatile precursor for highly functionalized DAG-lactones.

[structure: see text] Commercially available 2-methylenepropane-1,3-diol was converted to chiral epoxide (R)-2 via Sharpless asymmetric epoxidation in >96% ee. Regiospecific epoxide ring opening and reduction of the intermediate alkyne set the stage for a one-pot lactonization to give (R)-6, a convenient precursor for all functionalized chiral DAG-lactones used as potent PK-C ligands. The synthesis of the most potent DAG-lactones known to date, (Z)-10 and (E)-10, served to confirm PK-C's exclusive preference for the (R)-stereochemistry in this class of compounds.

Diacylglycerol lactones targeting the structural features that distinguish the atypical C1 domains of protein kinase C ζ and ι from typical C1 domains.

To explore the feasibility of developing ligands targeted to the atypical C1 domains of protein kinase C ζ and ι, we have prepared diacylglycerol lactones substituted with hydrophilic groups on their side chains, which potentially could interact with the arginine residues that distinguish the atypical C1 domains of PKCζ and PKCι from typical C1 domains, and we have measured their binding to mutated versions of the C1b domain of PKCδ that incorporate one or more of these arginine residues. The most selective of the diacylglycerol lactones showed only a 10-fold reduction in binding affinity with the triple arginine mutant (N7R/S10R/L20R) compared to the wild-type, whereas phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate showed a 6000-fold loss of affinity. Molecular modeling confirms that these ligands are indeed able to interact with the arginine residues. Our results show that dramatic changes in selectivity can be obtained through appropriate substitution of diacylglycerol lactones.

Materials from peptide assembly: towards the treatment of cancer and transmittable disease.

As the prevalence of cancer and transmittable disease persists, the development of new and more advanced therapies remains a priority in medical research. An emerging platform for the treatment of these illnesses is the use of materials formed via peptide assembly where the bulk material itself acts as the therapeutic. Higher ordered peptide structures with defined chemistry are capable of cellular targeting, recognition, and internalization. Recent design efforts are being made to exploit the nanoscale definition of the materials formed by assembling peptides to target cancer and microbial cells and to function as vaccines. This review focuses on assembled peptide materials that actively participate in the biological processes important to cancer and transmittable diseases to exert an anticipated functional outcome.

North- and south-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexene nucleosides: the effect of ring planarity on anti-HIV activity.

The syntheses of new conformationally locked North- and South-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexene nucleosides is reported. The North analogues were synthesized by a convergent approach from the known (1S,2R,5R)-5-[(tert-butyldiphenylsilyloxy)methyl]bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-3-en-2-ol by Mitsunobu coupling with the nucleobases. The South analogues were synthesized from their bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane nucleoside precursors by the selective protection of the primary hydroxy group, conversion of the secondary alcohol into a good leaving group, and base-catalyzed elimination to generate the olefin. The transformation of a bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane nucleoside into a bicyclo[3.1.0]hexene nucleoside flattens the five-membered ring of the bicyclic system and rescues anti-HIV activity for North-D4T, North-D4A, and South-D4C. The relationship between planarity and the anti/syn disposition of the nucleobase that is favored by a particular pseudosugar platform are proposed as key parameters in controlling biological activity.

Conformationally constrained analogues of diacylglycerol. 29. Cells sort diacylglycerol-lactone chemical zip codes to produce diverse and selective biological activities.

Diacylglycerol-lactone (DAG-lactone) libraries generated by a solid-phase approach using IRORI technology produced a variety of unique biological activities. Subtle differences in chemical diversity in two areas of the molecule, the combination of which generates what we have termed "chemical zip codes", are able to transform a relatively small chemical space into a larger universe of biological activities, as membrane-containing organelles within the cell appear to be able to decode these "chemical zip codes". It is postulated that after binding to protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes or other nonkinase target proteins that contain diacylglycerol responsive, membrane interacting domains (C1 domains), the resulting complexes are directed to diverse intracellular sites where different sets of substrates are accessed. Multiple cellular bioassays show that DAG-lactones, which bind in vitro to PKCalpha to varying degrees, expand their biological repertoire into a larger domain, eliciting distinct cellular responses.