Evaluation of the Immune Responses to and Cross-Protective Efficacy of Eurasian H7 Avian Influenza Viruses.

Due to increasing concerns about human infection by various H7 influenza viruses, including recent H7N9 viruses, we evaluated the genetic relationships and cross-protective efficacies of three different Eurasian H7 avian influenza viruses. Phylogenic and molecular analyses revealed that recent Eurasian H7 viruses can be separated into two different lineages, with relatively high amino acid identities within groups (94.8 to 98.8%) and low amino acid identities between groups (90.3 to 92.6%). In vivo immunization with representatives of each group revealed that while group-specific cross-reactivity was induced, cross-reactive hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers were approximately 4-fold lower against heterologous group viruses than against homologous group viruses. Moreover, the group I (RgW109/06) vaccine protected 100% of immunized mice from various group I viruses, while only 20 to 40% of immunized mice survived lethal challenge with heterologous group II viruses and exhibited high viral titers in the lung. Moreover, while the group II (RgW478/14) vaccine also protected mice from lethal challenge with group II viruses, it failed to elicit cross-protection against group I viruses. However, it is noteworthy that vaccination with RgAnhui1/13, a virus of a sublineage of group I, cross-protected immunized mice against lethal challenge with both group I and II viruses and significantly attenuated lung viral titers. Interestingly, immune sera from RgAnhui1/13-vaccinated mice showed a broad neutralizing spectrum rather than the group-specific pattern observed with the other viruses. These results suggest that the recent human-infective H7N9 strain may be a candidate broad cross-protective vaccine for Eurasian H7 viruses.IMPORTANCE Genetic and phylogenic analyses have demonstrated that the Eurasian H7 viruses can be separated into at least two different lineages, both of which contain human-infective fatal H7 viruses, including the recent novel H7N9 viruses isolated in China since 2013. Due to the increasing concerns regarding the global public health risk posed by H7 viruses, we evaluated the genetic relationships between Eurasian H7 avian influenza viruses and the cross-protective efficacies of three different H7 viruses: W109/06 (group I), W478/14 (group II), and Anhui1/13 (a sublineage of group I). While each vaccine induced group-specific antibody responses and cross-protective efficacy, only Anhui1/13 was able to cross-protect immunized hosts against lethal challenge across groups. In fact, the Anhui1/13 virus induced not only cross-protection but also broad serum neutralizing antibody responses against both groups of viruses. This suggests that Anhui1/13-like H7N9 viruses may be viable vaccine candidates for broad protection against Eurasian H7 viruses.

Surveillance of avian influenza viruses in South Korea between 2012 and 2014.

BACKGROUND: National surveillance of avian influenza virus (AIV) in South Korea has been annually conducted for the early detection of AIV and responses to the introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus. In this study, we report on a nationwide surveillance study of AIV in domestic poultry and wild birds in South Korea between 2012 and 2014. METHODS: During the surveillance programs between 2012 and 2014, 141,560 samples were collected. Of these, 102,199 were from poultry farms, 8215 were from LBMs, and 31,146 were from wild bird habitats. The virus isolation was performed by inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs and AIV isolates were detected using hemagglutination assay. For subtying of AIV, the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes were confirmed by sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis of the H5 subtypes was performed using 28 H5 AIV isolates. RESULTS: Between 2012 and 2014, a total of 819 AIV were isolated from 141,560 samples. Virus isolation rates for AIV were 0.6, 0.4, 0.1, and 2.7% in wild birds (n = 202), domestic ducks (n = 387), minor poultry (n = 11), and the live bird market (LBM) (n = 219), respectively. In wild birds, various subtypes were found including H1-H7 and H9-H13. The major subtypes were H5 (n = 48, 23.9%: N3 (n = 4) and N8 (n = 44)), H4 (n = 39, 19.4%), and H1 (n = 29, 14.4%). In domestic poultry, mainly ducks, the H5N8 (n = 275, 59.3%), H3 (n = 30, 17.2%), and H6 (n = 53, 11.4%) subtypes were predominantly found. The most frequently detected subtypes in LBM, primarily Korean native chicken, were H9 (n = 169, 77.2%). H3 (n = 10, 4%) and H6 (n = 30, 13.7%) were also isolated in LBM. Overall, the prevalence of AIV was found to be higher between winter and spring and in western parts of South Korea. The unusual high prevalence of the H5 subtype of AIV was due to the large scale outbreak of H5N8 HPAI in wild birds and domestic poultry in 2014. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced surveillance and application of effective control measures in wild birds and domestic poultry, including LBM, should be implemented to control AI and eradicate HPAI.

Experimental infection of SPF and Korean native chickens with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N8).

In 2014, an H5N8 outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in South Korea. The H5N8 strain produced mild to moderate clinical signs and mortality rates in commercial chicken farms, especially Korean native chicken farms. To understand the differences between their pathogenicity in SPF chicken and Korean native chicken., we evaluated the mean bird lethal doses (BLD50) of the Korean representative H5N8 virus (A/broiler duck/Korea/Buan2/2014) The BLD50values of the H5N8 virus were 10(5.3)EID50 and 10(6.7)EID50 in SPF and Korean native chickens, respectively. In addition, the mean death time was much longer, and the viral titers in tissues of H5N8-infected chickens were significantly lower, in the Korean group than in the SPF group. These features of the H5N8 virus likely account for its mild-to-moderate pathogenicity in commercial chicken farms, especially Korean native chicken flocks, despite the fact that it is a highly pathogenic virus according to the OIE criteria. To improve current understanding and management of HPAI, pathogenic characterization of novel emerging viruses should be performed by natural route in major poultry species in each country.

Novel reassortant influenza A(H5N8) viruses among inoculated domestic and wild ducks, South Korea, 2014.

An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza, caused by a novel reassortant influenza A (H5N8) virus, occurred among poultry and wild birds in South Korea in 2014. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pathogenesis in and mode of transmission of this virus among domestic and wild ducks. Three of the viruses had similar pathogenicity among infected domestic ducks: the H5N8 viruses were moderately pathogenic (0%-20% mortality rate); in wild mallard ducks, the H5N8 and H5N1 viruses did not cause severe illness or death; viral replication and shedding were greater in H5N8-infected mallards than in H5N1-infected mallards. Identification of H5N8 viruses in birds exposed to infected domestic ducks and mallards indicated that the viruses could spread by contact. We propose active surveillance to support prevention of the spread of this virus among wild birds and poultry, especially domestic ducks.

Pathologic Changes in Wild Birds Infected with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N8) Viruses, South Korea, 2014.

In January 2014, an outbreak of infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N8) virus began on a duck farm in South Korea and spread to other poultry farms nearby. During this outbreak, many sick or dead wild birds were found around habitats frequented by migratory birds. To determine the causes of death, we examined 771 wild bird carcasses and identified HPAI A(H5N8) virus in 167. Gross and histologic lesions were observed in pancreas, lung, brain, and kidney of Baikal teals, bean geese, and whooper swans but not mallard ducks. Such lesions are consistent with lethal HPAI A(H5N8) virus infection. However, some HPAI-positive birds had died of gunshot wounds, peritonitis, or agrochemical poisoning rather than virus infection. These findings suggest that susceptibility to HPAI A(H5N8) virus varies among species of migratory birds and that asymptomatic migratory birds could be carriers of this virus.

Supplementation of influenza split vaccines with conserved M2 ectodomains overcomes strain specificity and provides long-term cross protection.

Current influenza vaccines do not provide good protection against antigenically different influenza A viruses. As an approach to overcome strain specificity of protection, this study demonstrates significantly improved long-term cross protection by supplementing split vaccines with a conserved molecular target, a repeat of the influenza M2 ectodomain (M2e) expressed on virus-like particles (M2e5x VLPs) in a membrane-anchored form. Intramuscular immunization with H1N1 split vaccine (A/California/07/2009) supplemented with M2e5x VLPs induced M2e-specific humoral and cellular immune responses, and shaped the host responses to the vaccine in the direction of T-helper type 1 responses inducing dominant IgG2a isotype antibodies as well as interferon-γ (IFN-γ) producing cells in systemic and mucosal sites. Upon lethal challenge, M2e5x VLP-supplemented vaccination lowered lung viral loads and induced long-term cross protection against H3N2 or H5N1 subtype influenza viruses over 12 months. M2e antibodies, CD4 T cells, and CD8 T cells were found to contribute to improving heterosubtypic cross protection. In addition, improved cross protection by supplemented vaccination with M2e5x VLPs was mediated via Fc receptors. The results support evidence that supplementation with M2e5x VLPs is a promising approach for overcoming the limitation of strain-specific protection by current influenza vaccination.

Genetic evolution of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in domestic poultry in Vietnam between 2011 and 2013.

In spite of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 vaccination campaigns for domestic poultry, H5N1 viruses continue to circulate in Vietnam. To estimate the prevalence of avian influenza virus in Vietnam, surveillance was conducted between November 2011 and February 2013. Genetic analysis of 312 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 viruses isolated from poultry in Vietnam was conducted and possible genetic relationships with strains from neighboring countries were investigated. As previously reported, phylogenetic analysis of the avian influenza virus revealed two H5N1 HPAI clades that were circulating in Vietnam. Clade 1.1, related to Cambodian strains, was predominant in the southern provinces, while clade 2.3.2.1 viruses were predominant in the northern and central provinces. Sequence analysis revealed evidence of active genetic evolution. In the gene constellation of clade 2.3.2.1, genotypes A, B, and B(II) existed during the 2011/2012 winter season. In June 2012, new genotype C emerged by reassortment between genotype A and genotype B(II), and this genotype was predominant in 2013 in the northern and central provinces. Interestingly, enzootic Vietnamese clade 2.3.2.1C H5 virus subsequently reassorted with N2, which originated from wild birds, to generate H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza, which was isolated from duck in the northeast region. This investigation indicated that H5N1 outbreaks persist in Vietnam and cause genetic reassortment with circulating viruses. It is necessary to strengthen active influenza surveillance to eradicate highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses and sever the link between highly pathogenic avian influenza and other circulating influenza viruses.

Genetic and pathogenic characteristics of H1 avian and swine influenza A viruses.

This study examined the potential for cross-species transmission of influenza viruses by comparing the genetic and pathogenic characteristics of H1 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) with different host origins in Korea. Antigenic and phylogenetic analyses of H1 AIVs circulating in Korea provided evidence of genetic similarity between viruses that infect domestic ducks and those that infect wild birds, although there was no relationship between avian and swine viruses. However, there were some relationships between swine and human viral genes. The replication and pathogenicity of the H1 viruses was assessed in chickens, domestic ducks and mice. Viral shedding in chickens was relatively high. Virus was recovered from both oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs up to 5-10 days post-inoculation. The titres of domestic duck viruses in chickens were much higher than those of wild-bird viruses. Both domestic duck and wild-bird viruses replicated poorly in domestic ducks. None of the swine viruses replicated in chickens or domestic ducks; however, six viruses showed relatively high titres in mice, regardless of host origin, and induced clinical signs such as ruffled fur, squatting and weight loss. Thus, although the phylogenetic and antigenic analyses showed no evidence of interspecies transmission between birds and swine, the results suggest that Korean H1 viruses have the potential to cause disease in mammals. Therefore, we should intensify continuous monitoring of avian H1 viruses in mammals and seek to prevent interspecies transmission.

Molecular epidemiology of Newcastle disease viruses in Vietnam.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) causes significant economic losses to the poultry industry in Southeast Asia. In the present study, 12 field isolates of NDV were recovered from dead village chickens in Vietnam between 2007 and 2012, and were characterized. All the field isolates were classified as velogenic. Based on the sequence analysis of the F variable region, two distinct genetic groups (Vietnam genetic groups G1 and G2) were recognized. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the 12 field isolates fell into the class II genotype VII cluster. Ten of the field isolates, classified as Vietnam genetic group G1, were closely related to VIIh viruses that had been isolated from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Cambodia since the mid-2000s, while the other two field isolates, of Vietnam genetic group G2, clustered with VIId viruses, which were predominantly circulating in China and Far East Asia. Our results indicate that genotype VII viruses, especially VIIh viruses, are predominantly responsible for the recent epizootic of the disease in Vietnam.

Molecular epidemiological investigation of velogenic Newcastle disease viruses from village chickens in Cambodia.

Three isolates of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) were isolated from tracheal samples of dead village chickens in two provinces (Phnom Penh and Kampong Cham) in Cambodia during 2011-2012. All of these Cambodian NDV isolates were categorized as velogenic pathotype, based on in vivo pathogenicity tests and F cleavage site motif sequence ((112)RRRKRF(117)). The phylogenetic analysis and the evolutionary distances based on the sequences of the F gene revealed that all the three field isolates of NDV from Cambodia form a distinct cluster (VIIh) together with three Indonesian strains and were assigned to the genotype VII within the class II. Further phylogenetic analysis based on the hyper-variable region of the F gene revealed that some of NDV strains from Malaysia since the mid-2000s were also classified into the VIIh virus. This indicates that the VIIh NDVs are spreading through Southeast Asia. The present investigation, therefore, emphasizes the importance of further surveillance of NDV in neighboring countries as well as throughout Southeast Asia to contain further spreading of these VIIh viruses.

Geographical distribution of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses of domestic poultry in Vietnam and their genetic relevance with Asian isolates.

From the avian influenza virus (AIV) outbreaks and market surveillances in Vietnam during November 2011 and March 2012, a total of 196 AIV were isolated. Although H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) was the most prevalent subtype in Vietnam, 57 low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses were identified from mainly domestic ducks and some chickens. Of note, various subtypes of LPAI viruses were isolated from domestic ducks in Vietnam: H3 (n = 16), H4 (n = 4), H6 (n = 24), H7 (n = 1), and H9 (n = 10). Geographically, the LPAI viruses were identified in different regions of Vietnam. Phylogenetic analysis of HA and NA genes in LPAIV in Vietnam showed that some H3 (group I) and H4 subtypes AIV clustered with the viruses of several Asian isolates from domestic poultry and wild birds. However, the H6, H9, and some H3 (group II and III) subtypes AIV were closely related to isolates from domestic poultry in Southern China. In addition, whereas the N2 and N6 subtypes AIV belonged to the Eurasian lineage, the N8 subtype AIV was classified to be both of Eurasian and American lineage. These findings revealed that the regional trade and wild birds play a key role transmission of LPAIV in domestic ducks in Vietnam. Further surveillance at the intercountry level is needed to understand the epidemiology of these viruses and to cope with emergence of novel AIV types.

Induction of inflammatory cytokines and Toll-like receptors in chickens infected with avian H9N2 influenza virus.

H9N2 influenza virus is endemic in many Asian countries and is regarded as a candidate for the next human pandemic. Knowledge of the induction of inflammatory responses and toll-like receptors (TLRs) in chickens infected with H9N2 is limited. Here, we show that H9N2 induces pro-inflammatory cytokines such as transforming growth factor-beta 3; tumor necrosis factor-alpha; interferon-alpha, -beta, and gamma; and TLR 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 15 in trachea, lung, and intestine of infected chickens. In the lung, TLR-15 was dominantly induced. Taken together, it seems that H9N2 infections efficiently induce inflammatory cytokines and TLRs in trachea, lung and intestine of chickens.

Pandemic H1N1 influenza virus causes a stronger inflammatory response than seasonal H1N1 influenza virus in ferrets.

A 2009 H1N1 influenza virus pandemic, which had its origin in swine, caused severe illness and mortality in humans. Inflammatory responses may be responsible for pathogenesis caused by infection with influenza viruses. To better understand the pathogenic mechanism, clinical signs and inflammatory responses in ferrets infected with the pandemic H1N1 were compared with those caused by seasonal H1N1 influenza virus. Ferrets infected with the 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus displayed higher body temperatures, greater reduction in body weight, and higher viral titers in the tracheae and lungs. Levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6, interferon-alpha, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, were higher in the lungs of ferrets infected with the 2009 pandemic H1N1. The data support the idea that increased pathogenesis caused by the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus may have been partially mediated by a higher induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the lungs of affected humans or animals.

Pathogenicity of clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in three chicken breeds from South Korea in 2016/2017.

In 2016, novel H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus emerged in Korea. During the outbreak, the virus caused the largest culling, especially in brown chicken lines. We determined the pathogenicity and transmissibility of the virus in 2 white chicken lines of the specific pathogen-free chickens, broilers and brown chicken line of Korean native chicken (KNC). A KNC had a longer virus shedding period and longer mean death time than others. Our study showed that this characteristic in the KNC might have contributed to a farm-to-farm transmission of the brown chicken farms.

Evaluation of the zoonotic potential of multiple subgroups of clade 2.3.4.4 influenza A (H5N8) virus.

Clade 2.3.4.4 H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have spread worldwide. Phylogenetic analysis identified two genetic groups of the H5N8 HPAIVs in South Korea; group A evolved further into four subgroups. Here, we examined the zoonotic potential, both in vivo and in vitro, of genetically distinct subgroups of H5N8 HPAIVs isolated in South Korea. When compared with other subgroups, A/mallard/Korea/H2102/2015 (H2102) virus caused relatively severe disease in mice at high doses. In ferrets, all H5N8 viruses replicated restrictively in the respiratory tract and did not induce significant clinical signs of influenza infection. In vitro studies, all viruses displayed a hemagglutinin phenotype that was poorly adapted for infection of mammals, although the H2102 virus exhibited higher replication kinetics at 33°C than the others. Although H5N8 HPAIVs have not yet acquired all the characteristics required for adaptation to mammals, their ability to evolve continuously underscores the need for timely risk assessment.

Phylogeographical characterization of H5N8 viruses isolated from poultry and wild birds during 2014-2016 in South Korea.

During 2014­2016 HPAI outbreak in South Korea, H5N8 viruses have been mostly isolated in western areas of the country, which provide wintering habitats for wild birds and have a high density of poultry. Analysis of a total of 101 Korean isolates revealed that primitive H5N8 viruses (C0 group) have evolved into multiple genetic subgroups appearing from various epidemiological sources, namely, the viruses circulating in poultry farms (C1 and C5) and those reintroduced by migratory birds in late 2014 (C2 and C4). No C3 groups were detected. The results may explain the possible reasons of the recent long-term persistence of H5N8 viruses in South Korea, and help to develop the effective measures in controlling HPAI viruses.

Experimental infection of mandarin duck with highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N8 and H5N1) viruses.

A highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 virus was first detected in poultry and wild birds in South Korea in January 2014. Here, we determined the pathogenicity and transmissibility of three different clades of H5 viruses in mandarin ducks to examine the potential for wild bird infection. H5N8 (clade 2.3.4.4) replicated more efficiently in the upper and lower respiratory tract of mandarin ducks than two previously identified H5N1 virus clades (clades 2.2 and 2.3.2.1). However, none of the mandarin ducks infected with H5N8 and H5N1 viruses showed severe clinical signs or mortality, and gross lesions were only observed in a few tissues. Viral replication and shedding were greater in H5N8-infected ducks than in H5N1-infected ducks. Recovery of all viruses from control duck in contact with infected ducks indicated that the highly pathogenic H5 viruses spread horizontally through contact. Taken together, these results suggest that H5N8 viruses spread efficiently in mandarin ducks. Further studies of pathogenicity in wild birds are required to examine possible long-distance dissemination via migration routes.

Multiple novel H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, South Korea, 2016.

We report the identification of novel highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of subtype H5N6, clade 2.3.4.4, that presumably originated from China. In addition, reassortant strains with Eurasian lineage low pathogenic avian influenza viruses were isolated in wild birds and poultry in South Korea. The emergence of these novel H5N6 viruses and their circulation among bird populations are of great concern because of the potential for virus dissemination with intercontinental wild bird migration.

Supplemented vaccination with tandem repeat M2e virus-like particles enhances protection against homologous and heterologous HPAI H5 viruses in chickens.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5 viruses derived from A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 have been continuously circulating globally, severely affecting the public health and poultry industries. The matrix 2 protein ectodomain (M2e) is considered a promising candidate for a universal cross-protective influenza vaccine that provides more effective control over HPAI H5 viruses harboring variant hemagglutinin (HA)-antigens. Here, we evaluated the protective efficacy of a tandem repeat construct of heterologous M2e presented on virus-like particles (M2e5x VLPs) either alone or as a supplement against HPAI H5 viruses in a chicken model. Chickens immunized with M2e5x VLPs alone induced M2e-specific antibodies but were not protected against HPAI H5. The homo- and cross-protective efficacy of M2e5x VLP-supplemented vaccination of chickens was also examined. Importantly, supplementation with M2e5x VLPs induced significantly higher levels of antibodies specific for M2e and different viruses as well as provided improved protection against homologous and heterologous HPAI H5 viruses. Considering the limited efficacy of inactivated vaccines, supplement vaccination with M2e5x VLPs may be an effective measure for preventing outbreaks of HPAI viruses that have the ability to constantly change their antigenic properties in poultry.