Mitochondrial cristae shape determines respiratory chain supercomplexes assembly and respiratory efficiency.

Respiratory chain complexes assemble into functional quaternary structures called supercomplexes (RCS) within the folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, or cristae. Here, we investigate the relationship between respiratory function and mitochondrial ultrastructure and provide evidence that cristae shape determines the assembly and stability of RCS and hence mitochondrial respiratory efficiency. Genetic and apoptotic manipulations of cristae structure affect assembly and activity of RCS in vitro and in vivo, independently of changes to mitochondrial protein synthesis or apoptotic outer mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. We demonstrate that, accordingly, the efficiency of mitochondria-dependent cell growth depends on cristae shape. Thus, RCS assembly emerges as a link between membrane morphology and function.

Traveling Bax and forth from mitochondria to control apoptosis.

Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins on mitochondria inhibit prodeath proteins, such as Bax, which are found primarily in the cytosol. In this issue, Edlich et al., (2011) show that Bax and Bcl-xL interact on the mitochondrial surface and then retrotranslocate to the cytosol, effectively preventing Bax-induced permeabilization of mitochondria.

The displacement of frataxin from the mitochondrial cristae correlates with abnormal respiratory supercomplexes formation and bioenergetic defects in cells of Friedreich ataxia patients.

Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is a neurodegenerative disease resulting from a severe decrease of frataxin (FXN). Most patients carry a GAA repeat expansion in both alleles of the FXN gene, whereas a small fraction of them are compound heterozygous for the expansion and a point mutation in the other allele. FXN is involved in the mitochondrial biogenesis of the FeS-clusters. Distinctive feature of FRDA patient cells is an impaired cellular respiration, likely due to a deficit of key redox cofactors working as electrons shuttles through the respiratory chain. However, a definite relationship between FXN levels, FeS-clusters assembly dysregulation and bioenergetics failure has not been established. In this work, we performed a comparative analysis of the mitochondrial phenotype of cell lines from FRDA patients, either homozygous for the expansion or compound heterozygotes for the G130V mutation. We found that, in healthy cells, FXN and two key proteins of the FeS-cluster assembly machinery are enriched in mitochondrial cristae, the dynamic subcompartment housing the respiratory chain. On the contrary, FXN widely redistributes to the matrix in FRDA cells with defects in respiratory supercomplexes assembly and altered respiratory function. We propose that this could be relevant for the early mitochondrial defects afflicting FRDA cells and that perturbation of mitochondrial morphodynamics could in turn be critical in terms of disease mechanisms.

Molecular Research on Mitochondrial Dysfunction.

This Special Issue collects current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial dysfunction and its related diseases, as well as therapies and perspectives pertaining to their treatment [...].

Macroautophagy inhibition maintains fragmented mitochondria to foster T cell receptor-dependent apoptosis.

Mitochondrial dynamics and functionality are linked to the autophagic degradative pathway under several stress conditions. However, the interplay between mitochondria and autophagy upon cell death signalling remains unclear. The T-cell receptor pathway signals the so-called activation-induced cell death (AICD) essential for immune tolerance regulation. Here, we show that this apoptotic pathway requires the inhibition of macroautophagy. Protein kinase-A activation downstream of T-cell receptor signalling inhibits macroautophagy upon AICD induction. This leads to the accumulation of damaged mitochondria, which are fragmented, display remodelled cristae and release cytochrome c, thereby driving apoptosis. Autophagy-forced reactivation that clears the Parkin-decorated mitochondria is as effective in inhibiting apoptosis as genetic interference with cristae remodelling and cytochrome c release. Thus, upon AICD induction regulation of macroautophagy, rather than selective mitophagy, ensures apoptotic progression.

A new split-GFP-based probe reveals DJ-1 translocation into the mitochondrial matrix to sustain ATP synthesis upon nutrient deprivation.

The Parkinson's disease-related protein DJ-1 has a role in the protection against oxidative stress and maintenance of mitochondria structure. Whether this action depends on its localization and activity within the mitochondria is not clear. Here we develop an approach to resolve intra-mitochondrial distribution of DJ-1 and monitor its translocation under specific conditions. By a new split-green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based tool, we can observe that a small DJ-1 fraction is located within the mitochondrial matrix and that it consistently increases upon nutrient depletion. We also find that the targeting of DJ-1 to the mitochondrial matrix enhances mitochondrial and cytosolic adenosine triphosphate levels. Intriguingly, DJ-1 pathogenic mutants fail to improve bioenergetics and translocate within the mitochondrial matrix, suggesting that the DJ-1 protective role requires both these actions. By this new split-GFP-based tool, we can resolve mitochondrial compartmentalization of proteins which are not constitutively resident in mitochondria but translocate to them in response to specific stimuli.

Novel mitochondrial protein interactors of immunoglobulin light chains causing heart amyloidosis.

In immunoglobulin (Ig) light-chain (LC) (AL) amyloidosis, AL deposition translates into life-threatening cardiomyopathy. Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that soluble cardiotoxic LCs are themselves harmful for cells, by which they are internalized. Hypothesizing that interaction of soluble cardiotoxic LCs with cellular proteins contributes to damage, we characterized their interactome in cardiac cells. LCs were purified from patients with AL amyloidosis cardiomyopathy or multiple myeloma without amyloidosis (the nonamyloidogenic/noncardiotoxic LCs served as controls) and employed at concentrations in the range observed in AL patients' sera. A functional proteomic approach, based on direct and inverse coimmunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, allowed identifying LC-protein complexes. Findings were validated by colocalization, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)-fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), and ultrastructural studies, using human primary cardiac fibroblasts (hCFs) and stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Amyloidogenic cardiotoxic LCs interact in vitro with specific intracellular proteins involved in viability and metabolism. Imaging confirmed that, especially in hCFs, cardiotoxic LCs (not controls) colocalize with mitochondria and spatially associate with selected interactors: mitochondrial optic atrophy 1-like protein and peroxisomal acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 (FLIM-FRET efficiencies 11 and 6%, respectively). Cardiotoxic LC-treated hCFs display mitochondrial ultrastructural changes, supporting mitochondrial involvement. We show that cardiotoxic LCs establish nonphysiologic protein-protein contacts in human cardiac cells, offering new clues on the pathogenesis of AL cardiomyopathy.

NOX2 and NOX4 control mitochondrial function in chronic myeloid leukaemia.

Cancer cells are characterised by an elevated metabolic plasticity and enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), two features acknowledged as hallmarks in cancer, with a high translational potential to the therapeutic setting. These aspects, that have been traditionally studied separately, are in fact intimately intermingled. As part of their transforming activity, some oncogenes stimulate rewiring of metabolic processes, whilst simultaneously promoting increased production of intracellular ROS. In this scenario the latest discoveries suggest the relevance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOX) to connect ROS production and metabolic control. Here we have analysed the relevance of NOX2 and NOX4 in the regulation of metabolism in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), a neoplasia driven by the expression of the breakpoint cluster region-Abelson fusion oncogene (BCR-ABL). Silencing of NOX2 enhances glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation rates, together with an enhanced production of mitochondrial ROS and a decrease in mitochondrial DNA copy number, which reflects mitochondrial dysfunction. NOX4 expression was upregulated upon NOX2 silencing, and this was required to alter mitochondrial function. Our results support the relevance of NOX2 to regulate metabolism-related signalling pathways downstream of BCR-ABL. Overall we show that NOX2, through the regulation of NOX4 expression, controls metabolism and mitochondrial function in CML cells. This notion was confirmed by transcriptomic analyses, that strongly relate both NOX isoforms with metabolism regulation in CML.

OPA1 drives macrophage metabolism and functional commitment via p65 signaling.

Macrophages are essential players for the host response against pathogens, regulation of inflammation and tissue regeneration. The wide range of macrophage functions rely on their heterogeneity and plasticity that enable a dynamic adaptation of their responses according to the surrounding environmental cues. Recent studies suggest that metabolism provides synergistic support for macrophage activation and elicitation of desirable immune responses; however, the metabolic pathways orchestrating macrophage activation are still under scrutiny. Optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) is a mitochondria-shaping protein controlling mitochondrial fusion, cristae biogenesis and respiration; clear evidence shows that the lack or dysfunctional activity of this protein triggers the accumulation of metabolic intermediates of the TCA cycle. In this study, we show that OPA1 has a crucial role in macrophage activation. Selective Opa1 deletion in myeloid cells impairs M1-macrophage commitment. Mechanistically, Opa1 deletion leads to TCA cycle metabolite accumulation and defective NF-κB signaling activation. In an in vivo model of muscle regeneration upon injury, Opa1 knockout macrophages persist within the damaged tissue, leading to excess collagen deposition and impairment in muscle regeneration. Collectively, our data indicate that OPA1 is a key metabolic driver of macrophage functions.

Molecular characterization of dopamine-derived quinones reactivity toward NADH and glutathione: implications for mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson disease.

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, especially at the level of complex I of the electronic transport chain, have been proposed to be involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). A plausible source of oxidative stress in nigral dopaminergic neurons is the redox reactions that specifically involve dopamine (DA) and produce various toxic molecules, i.e., free radicals and quinone species (DAQ). It has been shown that DA oxidation products can induce various forms of mitochondrial dysfunction, such as mitochondrial swelling and decreased electron transport chain activity. In the present work, we analyzed the potentially toxic effects of DAQ on mitochondria and, specifically, on the NADH and GSH pools. Our results demonstrate that the generation of DAQ in isolated respiring mitochondria triggers the opening of the permeability transition pore most probably by inducing oxidation of NADH, while GSH levels are not affected. We then characterized in vitro, by UV and NMR spectroscopy, the reactivity of different DA-derived quinones, i.e., dopamine-o-quinone (DQ), aminochrome (AC) and indole-quinone (IQ), toward NADH and GSH. Our results indicate a very diverse reactivity for the different DAQ studied that may contribute to unravel the complex molecular mechanisms underlying oxidative stress and mitochondria dysfunction in the context of PD.

Cyclophilin D in mitochondrial pathophysiology.

Cyclophilins are a family of peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerases whose enzymatic activity can be inhibited by cyclosporin A. Sixteen cyclophilins have been identified in humans, and cyclophilin D is a unique isoform that is imported into the mitochondrial matrix. Here we shall (i) review the best characterized functions of cyclophilin D in mitochondria, i.e. regulation of the permeability transition pore, an inner membrane channel that plays an important role in the execution of cell death; (ii) highlight new regulatory interactions that are emerging in the literature, including the modulation of the mitochondrial F1FO ATP synthase through an interaction with the lateral stalk of the enzyme complex; and (iii) discuss diseases where cyclophilin D plays a pathogenetic role that makes it a suitable target for pharmacologic intervention.

Cyclophilin D modulates mitochondrial F0F1-ATP synthase by interacting with the lateral stalk of the complex.

Blue native gel electrophoresis purification and immunoprecipitation of F(0)F(1)-ATP synthase from bovine heart mitochondria revealed that cyclophilin (CyP) D associates to the complex. Treatment of intact mitochondria with the membrane-permeable bifunctional reagent dimethyl 3,3-dithiobis-propionimidate (DTBP) cross-linked CyPD with the lateral stalk of ATP synthase, whereas no interactions with F(1) sector subunits, the ATP synthase natural inhibitor protein IF1, and the ATP/ADP carrier were observed. The ATP synthase-CyPD interactions have functional consequences on enzyme catalysis and are modulated by phosphate (increased CyPD binding and decreased enzyme activity) and cyclosporin (Cs) A (decreased CyPD binding and increased enzyme activity). Treatment of MgATP submitochondrial particles or intact mitochondria with CsA displaced CyPD from membranes and activated both hydrolysis and synthesis of ATP sustained by the enzyme. No effect of CsA was detected in CyPD-null mitochondria, which displayed a higher specific activity of the ATP synthase than wild-type mitochondria. Modulation by CyPD binding appears to be independent of IF1, whose association to ATP synthase was not affected by CsA treatment. These findings demonstrate that CyPD association to the lateral stalk of ATP synthase modulates the activity of the complex.

The interplay between BCL-2 family proteins and mitochondrial morphology in the regulation of apoptosis.

Apoptosis is a highly regulated process where key players such as BCL-2 family members control the recruitment of the mitochondrial subroutine. This culminates in the release of cytochrome c from the organelle in the cytoplasm, where it is required for the activation of effector caspases. The complete release of cytochrome c is the result of the combined action of proapoptotic BCL-2 family members and of changes in the complex morphology and ultrastructure of the organelle, controlled by the balance between fusion and fission processes. Here we discuss recent findings pointing to a role for changes in mitochondrial morphology during apoptosis and how these might be regulated by members of the BCL-2 family.

Correction: JNK1 and ERK1/2 modulate lymphocyte homeostasis via BIM and DRP1 upon AICD induction.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

JNK1 and ERK1/2 modulate lymphocyte homeostasis via BIM and DRP1 upon AICD induction.

The Activation-Induced Cell Death (AICD) is a stimulation-dependent form of apoptosis used by the organism to shutdown T-cell response once the source of inflammation has been eliminated, while allowing the generation of immune memory. AICD is thought to progress through the activation of the extrinsic Fas/FasL pathway of cell death, leading to cytochrome-C release through caspase-8 and Bid activation. We recently described that, early upon AICD induction, mitochondria undergo structural alterations, which are required to promote cytochrome-C release and execute cell death. Here, we found that such alterations do not depend on the Fas/FasL pathway, which is instead only lately activated to amplify the cell death cascade. Instead, such alterations are primarily dependent on the MAPK proteins JNK1 and ERK1/2, which, in turn, regulate the activity of the pro-fission protein Drp1 and the pro-apoptotic factor Bim. The latter regulates cristae disassembly and cooperate with Drp1 to mediate the Mitochondrial Outer Membrane Permeabilization (MOMP), leading to cytochrome-C release. Interestingly, we found that Bim is also downregulated in T-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (T-ALL) cells, this alteration favouring their escape from AICD-mediated control.

Insight into the mechanism of cytotoxicity of membrane-permeant psoralenic Kv1.3 channel inhibitors by chemical dissection of a novel member of the family.

The potassium channel Kv1.3, involved in several important pathologies, is the target of a family of psoralen-based drugs whose mechanism of action is not fully understood. Here we provide evidence for a physical interaction of the mitochondria-located Kv1.3 (mtKv1.3) and Complex I of the respiratory chain and show that this proximity underlies the death-inducing ability of psoralenic Kv1.3 inhibitors. The effects of PAP-1-MHEG (PAP-1, a Kv1.3 inhibitor, with six monomeric ethylene glycol units attached to the phenyl ring of PAP-1), a more soluble novel derivative of PAP-1 and of its various portions on mitochondrial physiology indicate that the psoralenic moiety of PAP-1 bound to mtKv1.3 facilitates the diversion of electrons from Complex I to molecular oxygen. The resulting massive production of toxic Reactive Oxygen Species leads to death of cancer cells expressing Kv1.3. In vivo, PAP-1-MHEG significantly decreased melanoma volume. In summary, PAP-1-MHEG offers insights into the mechanisms of cytotoxicity of this family of compounds and may represent a valuable clinical tool.

Developmental and Tumor Angiogenesis Requires the Mitochondria-Shaping Protein Opa1.

While endothelial cell (EC) function is influenced by mitochondrial metabolism, the role of mitochondrial dynamics in angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from existing vasculature, is unknown. Here we show that the inner mitochondrial membrane mitochondrial fusion protein optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) is required for angiogenesis. In response to angiogenic stimuli, OPA1 levels rapidly increase to limit nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NFκB) signaling, ultimately allowing angiogenic genes expression and angiogenesis. Endothelial Opa1 is indeed required in an NFκB-dependent pathway essential for developmental and tumor angiogenesis, impacting tumor growth and metastatization. A first-in-class small molecule-specific OPA1 inhibitor confirms that EC Opa1 can be pharmacologically targeted to curtail tumor growth. Our data identify Opa1 as a crucial component of physiological and tumor angiogenesis.

ER Stress Priming of Mitochondrial Respiratory suPERKomplex Assembly.

Assembly factors are necessary for the formation of mitochondrial supercomplexes (SCs) and in making cellular respiration more efficient. In a recent study, Balsa et al. (Mol. Cell, 2019) report that nutrient-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress engages PERK-eIF2α-mediated transcription of the SCs assembly factor SCAF1, events that coordinate ER stress and SCs formation to improve bioenergetics.

PARP Inhibitor PJ34 Protects Mitochondria and Induces DNA-Damage Mediated Apoptosis in Combination With Cisplatin or Temozolomide in B16F10 Melanoma Cells.

PARP-1 inhibition has recently been employed in both mono- and combination therapies in various malignancies including melanoma with both promising and contradicting results reported. Although deeper understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms may help improving clinical modalities, the complex cellular effects of PARP inhibitors make disentangling of the mechanisms involved in combination therapies difficult. Here, we used two cytostatic agents used in melanoma therapies in combination with PARP inhibition to have an insight into cellular events using the B16F10 melanoma model. We found that, when used in combination with cisplatin or temozolomide, pharmacologic blockade of PARP-1 by PJ34 augmented the DNA-damaging and cytotoxic effects of both alkylating compounds. Interestingly, however, this synergism unfolds relatively slowly and is preceded by molecular events that are traditionally believed to support cell survival including the stabilization of mitochondrial membrane potential and morphology. Our data indicate that the PARP inhibitor PJ34 has, apparently, opposing effects on the mitochondrial structure and cell survival. While, initially, it stimulates mitochondrial fusion and hyperpolarization, hallmarks of mitochondrial protection, it enhances the cytotoxic effects of alkylating agents at later stages. These findings may contribute to the optimization of PARP inhibitor-based antineoplastic modalities.

Regulation of Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain Assembly.

Mitochondrial function depends on the correct synthesis, transport, and assembly of proteins and cofactors of the electron transport chain. The initial idea that the respiratory chain protein complexes (RCCs) were independent structures in the inner mitochondrial membrane evolved after the identification of higher quaternary structures called supercomplexes (SCs), whose formation is dynamically regulated in order to accommodate cellular metabolic demands. Due to the dual genetic origin of the mitochondrial proteome, electron transport chain and SCs formation must be tightly regulated to coordinate the expression and assembly of components encoded by both genomes. This regulation occurs at different levels from gene transcription to protein, complex or SCs assembly, and might involve the participation of factors that contribute to the formation and stability of the RCCs and SCs. Here we review the cellular pathways and assembly factors that regulate RCCs and SCs formation.