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BACKGROUND: Infections during pregnancy have been robustly associated with adverse mental and physical health outcomes in offspring, yet the underlying molecular pathways remain largely unknown. Here, we examined whether exposure to common infections in utero associates with DNA methylation (DNAm) patterns at birth and whether this in turn relates to offspring health outcomes in the general population. METHODS: Using data from 2,367 children from the Dutch population-based Generation R Study, we first performed an epigenome-wide association study to identify differentially methylated sites and regions at birth associated with prenatal infection exposure. We also examined the influence of infection timing by using self-reported cumulative infection scores for each trimester. Second, we sought to develop an aggregate methylation profile score (MPS) based on cord blood DNAm as an epigenetic proxy of prenatal infection exposure and tested whether this MPS prospectively associates with offspring health outcomes, including psychiatric symptoms, BMI, and asthma at ages 13-16 years. Third, we investigated whether prenatal infection exposure associates with offspring epigenetic age acceleration - a marker of biological aging. Across all analysis steps, we tested whether our findings replicate in 864 participants from an independent population-based cohort (ALSPAC, UK). RESULTS: We observed no differentially methylated sites or regions in cord blood in relation to prenatal infection exposure, after multiple testing correction. 33 DNAm sites showed suggestive associations (p < 5e10 - 5; of which one was also nominally associated in ALSPAC), indicating potential links to genes associated with immune, neurodevelopmental, and cardiovascular pathways. While the MPS of prenatal infections associated with maternal reports of infections in the internal hold out sample in the Generation R Study (R2incremental = 0.049), it did not replicate in ALSPAC (R2incremental = 0.001), and it did not prospectively associate with offspring health outcomes in either cohort. Moreover, we observed no association between prenatal exposure to infections and epigenetic age acceleration across cohorts and clocks. CONCLUSION: In contrast to prior studies, which reported DNAm differences in offspring exposed to severe infections in utero, we do not find evidence for associations between self-reported clinically evident common infections during pregnancy and DNAm or epigenetic aging in cord blood within the general pediatric population. Future studies are needed to establish whether associations exist but are too subtle to be statistically meaningful with present sample sizes, whether they replicate in a cohort with a more similar infection score as our discovery cohort, whether they occur in different tissues than cord blood, and whether other biological pathways may be more relevant for mediating the effect of prenatal common infection exposure on downstream offspring health outcomes.
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BACKGROUND: Maternal infection during pregnancy has been identified as a prenatal risk factor for the later development of psychopathology in exposed offspring. Neuroimaging data collected during childhood has suggested a link between prenatal exposure to maternal infection and child brain structure and function, potentially offering a neurobiological explanation for the emergence of psychopathology. Additionally, preclinical studies utilizing repeated measures of neuroimaging data suggest that effects of prenatal maternal infection on the offspring's brain may normalize over time (i.e., catch-up growth). However, it remains unclear whether exposure to prenatal maternal infection in humans is related to long-term differential neurodevelopmental trajectories. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the association between prenatal exposure to infections on child brain development over time using repeated measures MRI data. METHODS: We leveraged data from a population-based cohort, Generation R, in which we examined prospectively assessed self-reported infections at each trimester of pregnancy (N = 2,155). We further used three neuroimaging assessments (at mean ages 8, 10 and 14) to obtain cortical and subcortical measures of the offspring's brain morphology with MRI. Hereafter, we applied linear mixed-effects models, adjusting for several confounding factors, to estimate the association of prenatal maternal infection with child brain development over time. RESULTS: We found that prenatal exposure to infection in the third trimester was associated with a slower decrease in volumes of the pars orbitalis, rostral anterior cingulate and superior frontal gyrus, and a faster increase in the middle temporal gyrus. In the temporal pole we observed a divergent pattern, specifically showing an increase in volume in offspring exposed to more infections compared to a decrease in volume in offspring exposed to fewer infections. We further observed associations in other frontal and temporal lobe structures after exposure to infections in any trimester, though these did not survive multiple testing correction. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that prenatal exposure to infections in the third trimester may be associated with slower age-related growth in the regions: pars orbitalis, rostral anterior cingulate and superior frontal gyrus, and faster age-related growth in the middle temporal gyrus across childhood, suggesting a potential sensitive period. Our results might be interpreted as an extension of longitudinal findings from preclinical studies, indicating that children exposed to prenatal infections could exhibit catch-up growth. However, given the lack of differences in brain volume between various infection groups at baseline, there may instead be either a longitudinal deviation or a subtle temporal deviation. Subsequent well-powered studies that extend into the period of full brain development (â¼25 years) are needed to confirm whether the observed phenomenon is indeed catch-up growth, a longitudinal deviation, or a subtle temporal deviation.
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Encéfalo , Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética , Complicações Infecciosas na Gravidez , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal , Humanos , Gravidez , Feminino , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagem , Encéfalo/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Encéfalo/patologia , Criança , Masculino , Adolescente , Estudos Longitudinais , Neuroimagem , Desenvolvimento Infantil , AdultoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: A large body of work has reported a link between prenatal exposure to infection and increased psychiatric risk in offspring. However, studies to date have focused primarily on exposure to severe prenatal infections and/or individual psychiatric diagnoses in clinical samples, typically measured at single time points, and without accounting for important genetic and environmental confounders. In this study, we investigated whether exposure to common infections during pregnancy is prospectively associated with repeatedly assessed child psychiatric symptoms in a large population-based study. METHODS: Our study was embedded in a prospective pregnancy cohort (Generation R; n = 3,598 mother-child dyads). We constructed a comprehensive prenatal infection score comprising common infections for each trimester of pregnancy. Child total, internalizing, and externalizing problems were assessed repeatedly using the parent-rated Child Behavioral Checklist (average age: 1.5, 3, 6, 10, and 14 years). Linear mixed-effects models were run adjusting for a range of confounders, including child polygenic scores for psychopathology, maternal chronic illness, birth complications, and infections during childhood. We also investigated trimester-specific effects and child sex as a potential moderator. RESULTS: Prenatal exposure to infections was associated with higher child total, internalizing, and externalizing problems, showing temporally persistent effects, even after adjusting for important genetic and environmental confounders. We found no evidence that prenatal infections were associated with changes in child psychiatric symptoms over time. Moreover, in our trimester-specific analysis, we did not find evidence of significant timing effects of prenatal infection on child psychiatric symptoms. No interactions with child sex were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Our research adds to evidence that common prenatal infections may be a risk factor for psychiatric symptoms in children. We also extend previous findings by showing that these associations are present early on, and that rather than changing over time, they persist into adolescence. However, unmeasured confounding may still explain in part these associations. In the future, employing more advanced causal inference designs will be crucial to establishing the degree to which these effects are causal.
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Transtornos do Comportamento Infantil , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal , Humanos , Feminino , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal/epidemiologia , Gravidez , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Masculino , Estudos Longitudinais , Adolescente , Transtornos do Comportamento Infantil/epidemiologia , Transtornos do Comportamento Infantil/etiologia , Lactente , Complicações Infecciosas na Gravidez/epidemiologia , AdultoRESUMO
IMPORTANCE: Animal studies show that Maternal Immune Activation (MIA) may have detrimental effects on fetal brain development. Clinical studies provide evidence for structural brain abnormalities in human neonates following MIA, but no study has investigated the long-term effects of MIA (as measured with biomarkers) on human brain morphology ten years after the exposure. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to evaluate the long-term impact of MIA on brain morphology in 10-year-old children, including the possible mediating role of gestational age at birth. DESIGN: We leveraged data from Generation R, a large-scale prospective pregnancy cohort study. Pregnant women were included between 2002 and 2006, and their children were invited to participate in the MRI study between 2013 and 2015. To be included, mother-child dyads had to have data on maternal C-reactive protein levels during gestation and a good quality MRI-scan of the child's brain at age 10 years. Of the 3,992 children scanned, a total of 2,053 10-year-old children were included in this study. EXPOSURE: Maternal C-reactive protein was measured in the first 18 weeks of gestation. For the analyses we used both a continuous approach as well as a categorical approach based on clinical cut-offs to determine if there was a dose-response relationship. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: High-resolution MRI brain morphology measures were used as the primary outcome. Gestational age at birth, established using ultrasound, was included as a mediator using a causal mediation analysis. Corrections were made for relevant confounders and multiple comparisons. Biological sex was investigated as moderator. RESULTS: We found a direct association between continuous MIA and lower cerebellar volume. In girls, we demonstrated a negative indirect association between continuous MIA and total brain volume, through the mediator gestational age at birth. We observed no associations with categorical MIA after multiple testing correction. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: Our results suggest sex-specific long-term effects in brain morphology after MIA. Categorical analyses suggest that this association might be driven by acute infections or other sources of severe inflammation, which is of clinical relevance given that the COVID-19 pandemic is currently affecting millions of pregnant women worldwide.
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COVID-19 , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal , Animais , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagem , Proteína C-Reativa , Criança , Estudos de Coortes , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pandemias , Gravidez , Estudos ProspectivosRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Gender diversity in young adolescents is understudied outside of referral clinics. We investigated gender diversity in an urban, ethnically diverse sample of adolescents from the general population and examined predictors and associated mental health outcomes. METHODS: The study was embedded in Generation R, a population-based cohort of children born between 2002 and 2006 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands (n = 5727). At ages 9-11 and 13-15 years, adolescents and/or their parents responded to two questions addressing children's contentedness with their assigned gender, whether they (a) 'wished to be the opposite sex' and (b) 'would rather be treated as someone from the opposite sex'. We defined 'gender-variant experience' when either the parent or child responded with 'somewhat or sometimes true' or 'very or often true'. Mental health was assessed at 13-15 years, using the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment. RESULTS: Less than 1% of the parents reported that their child had gender-variant experience, with poor stability between 9-11 and 13-15 years. In contrast, 4% of children reported gender-variant experience at 13-15 years. Adolescents who were assigned female at birth reported more gender-variant experience than those assigned male. Parents with low/medium educational levels reported more gender-variant experience in their children than those with higher education. There were positive associations between gender-variant experience and symptoms of anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, rule-breaking, and aggressive behavior as well as attention, social, and thought problems. Similar associations were observed for autistic traits, independent of other mental difficulties. These associations did not differ by assigned sex at birth. CONCLUSIONS: Within this population-based study, adolescents assigned females were more likely to have gender-variant experience than males. Our data suggest that parents may not be aware of gender diversity feelings in their adolescents. Associations between gender diversity and mental health symptoms were present in adolescents.
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Identidade de Gênero , Pais , Criança , Recém-Nascido , Humanos , Adolescente , Masculino , Feminino , Pais/psicologia , Saúde Mental , Ansiedade , Avaliação de Resultados em Cuidados de SaúdeRESUMO
Adaptations of the immune system throughout gestation have been proposed as important mechanisms regulating successful pregnancy. Dysregulation of the maternal immune system has been associated with adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. To translate findings from mechanistic preclinical studies to human pregnancies, studies of serum immune markers are the mainstay. The design and interpretation of human biomarker studies require additional insights in the trajectories and drivers of peripheral immune markers. The current study mapped maternal inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-17A, IL-23, interferon- γ ) during pregnancy and investigated the impact of demographic, environmental and genetic drivers on maternal inflammatory marker levels in four multi-ethnic and socio-economically diverse population-based cohorts with more than 12,000 pregnant participants. Additionally, pregnancy inflammatory markers were compared to pre-pregnancy levels. Cytokines showed a high correlation with each other, but not with CRP. Inflammatory marker levels showed high variability between individuals, yet high concordance within an individual over time during and pre-pregnancy. Pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) explained more than 9.6% of the variance in CRP, but less than 1% of the variance in cytokines. The polygenic score of CRP was the best predictor of variance in CRP (>14.1%). Gestational age and previously identified inflammation drivers, including tobacco use and parity, explained less than 1% of variance in both cytokines and CRP. Our findings corroborate differential underlying regulatory mechanisms of CRP and cytokines and are suggestive of an individual inflammatory marker baseline which is, in part, genetically driven. While prior research has mainly focused on immune marker changes throughout pregnancy, our study suggests that this field could benefit from a focus on intra-individual factors, including metabolic and genetic components.
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There is convincing evidence from rodent studies suggesting that prenatal infections affect the offspring's brain, but evidence in humans is limited. Here, we assessed the occurrence of common infections during each trimester of pregnancy and examined associations with brain outcomes in adolescent offspring. Our study was embedded in the Generation R Study, a large-scale sociodemographically diverse prospective birth cohort. We included 1094 mother-child dyads and investigated brain morphology (structural MRI), white matter microstructure (DTI), and functional connectivity (functional MRI), as outcomes at the age of 14. We focused on both global and focal regions. To define prenatal infections, we composed a score based on the number and type of infections during each trimester of pregnancy. Models were adjusted for several confounders. We found that prenatal infection was negatively associated with cerebral white matter volume (B = -0.069, 95% CI -0.123 to -0.015, p = 0.011), and we found an association between higher prenatal infection scores and smaller volumes of several frontotemporal regions of the brain. After multiple testing correction, we only observed an association between prenatal infections and the caudal anterior cingulate volume (B = -0.104, 95% CI -0.164 to -0.045, p < 0.001). We did not observe effects of prenatal infection on other measures of adolescent brain morphology, white matter microstructure, or functional connectivity, which is reassuring. Our results show potential regions of interest in the brain for future studies; data on the effect of severe prenatal infections on the offspring's brain in humans are needed.
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Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal , Gravidez , Feminino , Adolescente , Humanos , Estudos Prospectivos , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal/epidemiologia , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagem , Neuroimagem , Imageamento por Ressonância MagnéticaRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: Exposure to infections during pregnancy may be a potential risk factor for later psychopathology, but large-scale epidemiological studies investigating associations between prenatal infection and long-term offspring behavioral problems in the general population are scarce. In our study, we aimed to investigate the following: (1) the association between prenatal infection and adolescent behavior, (2) putative underlying pathways (mediation), and (3) "second hits" interacting with prenatal infection to increase the risk of adolescent behavior problems (moderation). METHOD: Our study was embedded in a prospective Dutch pregnancy cohort (Generation R; n = 2,213 mother-child dyads). We constructed a comprehensive prenatal infection score comprising common infections for each trimester of pregnancy. At age 13 to 16 years, we assessed total, internalizing, and externalizing problems, and autistic traits using the Child Behavioral Checklist and the Social Responsiveness Scale, respectively. We investigated maternal lifestyle and nutrition, perinatal factors (placental health and delivery outcomes), and child health (lifestyle, traumatic events, infections) as mediators and moderators. RESULTS: We observed associations of prenatal infection with adolescent total behavioral, internalizing, and externalizing problems. The association between prenatal infection and internalizing problems was moderated by higher levels of maternal psychopathology, alcohol and tobacco use, and a higher number of traumatic childhood events. We found no association between prenatal infection and autistic traits. Yet, children exposed to prenatal infections and maternal substance use, and/or traumatic childhood events, had a higher risk of autistic traits in adolescence. CONCLUSION: Prenatal infection may be a risk factor for later psychiatric problems as well as a disease primer making individuals susceptible to other hits later in life. STUDY PREREGISTRATION INFORMATION: Prenatal maternal infection and adverse neurodevelopment: a structural equation modelling approach to downstream environmental hits; https://osf.io/cp85a; cp85a. DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT: We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants.
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Comportamento do Adolescente , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal , Criança , Masculino , Adolescente , Humanos , Gravidez , Feminino , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal/epidemiologia , Efeitos Tardios da Exposição Pré-Natal/etiologia , Estudos Prospectivos , Placenta , Fatores de RiscoRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: Autistic traits are associated with alterations in brain morphology. However, the anatomic location of these differences and their developmental trajectories are unclear. The primary objective of this longitudinal study was to explore the bidirectional relationship between autistic traits and brain morphology from childhood to adolescence. METHOD: Participants were drawn from a population-based cohort. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses included 1950 (mean age 13.5) and 304 participants (mean ages 6.2 and 13.5), respectively. Autistic traits were measured with the Social Responsiveness Scale. Global brain measures and surface-based measures of gyrification, cortical thickness and surface area were obtained from T1-weighted MRI scans. Cross-sectional associations were assessed using linear regression analyses. Cross-lagged panel models were used to determine the longitudinal bidirectional relationship between autistic traits and brain morphology. RESULTS: Cross-sectionally, higher levels of autistic traits in adolescents are associated with lower gyrification in the pars opercularis, insula and superior temporal cortex; smaller surface area in the middle temporal and postcentral cortex; larger cortical thickness in the superior frontal cortex; and smaller cerebellum cortex volume. Longitudinally, both autistic traits and brain measures were quite stable, with neither brain measures predicting changes in autistic traits, nor vice-versa. LIMITATIONS: Autistic traits were assessed at only two time points, and thus we could not distinguish within- versus between-person effects. Furthermore, two different MRI scanners were used between baseline and follow-up for imaging data acquisition. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings point to early changes in brain morphology in children with autistic symptoms that remain quite stable over time. The observed relationship did not change substantially after excluding children with high levels of autistic traits, bolstering the evidence for the extension of the neurobiology of autistic traits to the general population.