Senescence in brain pericytes attenuates blood-brain barrier function in vitro: A comparison of serially passaged and isolated pericytes from aged rat brains.

Aging is associated with the dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which comprises brain microvessel endothelial cells (BMECs), astrocytes, and pericytes. Pericytes are present at intervals along the walls of the brain capillaries and play a key role in maintaining BBB integrity. Accumulation of senescent cells and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) in the brain facilitate the development of age-related neurodegenerative diseases with BBB dysfunction. However, the ability of pericytes to support BBB integrity and their correlation with cellular senescence or aging remain unknown. Here, we investigated cellular senescence in pericytes focusing on its impact on BBB function using BBB models comprising intact BMECs co-cultured with senescent pericytes, which were obtained through a serial passage or isolated from 18-month-old rats. To assess BBB function, transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability of sodium fluorescein (Na-F) were studied. Both serially passaged pericytes (in passage 4, 7, and 10) and aged pericytes isolated from 18-month-old rats showed decreased TEER and enhanced permeability of BMECs to Na-F compared to that of normal pericytes (passage 2 or young). Furthermore, serially passaged and aged pericytes showed characteristic features of cellular senescence, including increased ß-galactosidase activity, cell cycle arrest, enhanced expression of mRNA, and SASP factors. However, the senescence-induced mRNA expression profile of pericyte markers varied between serially passaged and aged pericytes. Hence, in vitro serial passages and isolation from naturally aged rodents differently influenced genetic and biochemical features of senescent brain pericytes. We conclude that senescent brain pericytes can induce BBB dysfunction and those isolated from aged rodents retain the senescence-specific properties. Our findings provide an alternative tool to investigate the senescence in brain pericytes in vitro.

Levetiracetam Suppresses the Infiltration of Neutrophils and Monocytes and Downregulates Many Inflammatory Cytokines during Epileptogenesis in Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus Mice.

Acute brain inflammation after status epilepticus (SE) is involved in blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and brain edema, which cause the development of post-SE symptomatic epilepsy. Using pilocarpine-induced SE mice, we previously reported that treatment with levetiracetam (LEV) after SE suppresses increased expression levels of proinflammatory mediators during epileptogenesis and prevents the development of spontaneous recurrent seizures. However, it remains unclear how LEV suppresses neuroinflammation after SE. In this study, we demonstrated that LEV suppressed the infiltration of CD11b+CD45high cells into the brain after SE. CD11b+CD45high cells appeared in the hippocampus between 1 and 4 days after SE and contained Ly6G+Ly6C+ and Ly6G-Ly6C+ cells. Ly6G+Ly6C+ cells expressed higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß and TNFα suggesting that these cells were inflammatory neutrophils. Depletion of peripheral Ly6G+Ly6C+ cells prior to SE by anti-Ly6G antibody (NIMP-R14) treatment completely suppressed the infiltration of Ly6G+Ly6C+ cells into the brain. Proteome analysis revealed the downregulation of a variety of inflammatory cytokines, which exhibited increased expression in the post-SE hippocampus. These results suggest that Ly6G+Ly6C+ neutrophils are involved in the induction of acute brain inflammation after SE. The proteome expression profile of the hippocampus treated with LEV after SE was similar to that after NIMP-R14 treatment. Therefore, LEV may prevent acute brain inflammation after SE by suppressing inflammatory neutrophil infiltration.

Reactive pericytes in early phase are involved in glial activation and late-onset hypersusceptibility to pilocarpine-induced seizures in traumatic brain injury model mice.

In this study, among neurovascular unit (NVU) cells, we focused on pericyte reactivity in mice subjected to controlled cortical impact (CCI) to understand how traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes uncoordinated crosstalk in the NVU and alters neuronal activity. Histological analyses of brain pericytes, microglia and astrocytes were performed for up to 28 days after CCI in the injured ipsilateral hippocampus. To evaluate altered neuronal activity caused by CCI, we measured seizure susceptibility to a sub-threshold dose of pilocarpine on postoperative day 7, 14, 21 and 28. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) ß immunoreactivity in pericytes significantly increased from 1 h to 4 days after CCI. The expression of Iba1 and GFAP, as markers of microglia and astrocytes, respectively, increased from 4 to 28 days after CCI. The severity of seizure induced by pilocarpine gradually increased, becoming significant at 28 days after CCI. Then, we treated CCI mice with an inhibitor of PDGFR signaling, imatinib, during the postoperative day 0-4 period. Imatinib lowered seizure susceptibility to pilocarpine and suppressed microglial activation in the injured hippocampus at postoperative day 28. These findings indicate that brain pericytes with rapidly increased PDGFRß expression may drive TBI-induced dysregulation of NVU function and brain hyperexcitability.

Links between Immune Cells from the Periphery and the Brain in the Pathogenesis of Epilepsy: A Narrative Review.

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that the pathogenesis of epilepsy is linked to neuroinflammation and cerebrovascular dysfunction. Peripheral immune cell invasion into the brain, along with these responses, is implicitly involved in epilepsy. This review explored the current literature on the association between the peripheral and central nervous systems in the pathogenesis of epilepsy, and highlights novel research directions for therapeutic interventions targeting these reactions. Previous experimental and human studies have demonstrated the activation of the innate and adaptive immune responses in the brain. The time required for monocytes (responsible for innate immunity) and T cells (involved in acquired immunity) to invade the central nervous system after a seizure varies. Moreover, the time between the leakage associated with blood-brain barrier (BBB) failure and the infiltration of these cells varies. This suggests that cell infiltration is not merely a secondary disruptive event associated with BBB failure, but also a non-disruptive event facilitated by various mediators produced by the neurovascular unit consisting of neurons, perivascular astrocytes, microglia, pericytes, and endothelial cells. Moreover, genetic manipulation has enabled the differentiation between peripheral monocytes and resident microglia, which was previously considered difficult. Thus, the evidence suggests that peripheral monocytes may contribute to the pathogenesis of seizures.

Monomeric α-synuclein induces blood-brain barrier dysfunction through activated brain pericytes releasing inflammatory mediators in vitro.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption is often mediated by neuroinflammation, and occurs during various neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons and aggregated α-synuclein protein in inclusions known as Lewy bodies. Misfolded α-synuclein has been implicated in neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation through activation of microglia and astrocytes. Pericytes are a key cellular regulator of the BBB, although it is not known if they participate in α-synuclein-associated PD pathology. Here, we investigated the impact of pericytes on BBB integrity in response to α-synuclein using rat brain endothelial cells (RBECs) co-cultured with rat brain pericytes (RBEC/pericyte co-culture). In RBEC/pericyte co-cultures, α-synuclein added to the abluminal chamber (where pericytes were grown) significantly increased RBEC permeability to sodium fluorescein. In contrast, it had no marked effect when added to the luminal chamber. In the absence of pericytes, both luminal and abluminal addition of α-synuclein failed to affect permeability of the RBEC monolayer. α-Synuclein did not self-assemble in culture media within 24 h, suggesting that monomeric α-synuclein can disrupt the BBB by interacting with pericytes. We found that in response to α-synuclein, pericytes, but not RBECs, released interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). α-Synuclein did not affect platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB release from RBECs and PDGF receptor-ß expression in pericytes. These results suggest that pericytes are more sensitive to monomeric α-synuclein than RBECs regarding release of various inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and MMP-9. Thus, monomeric α-synuclein-activated pericytes may contribute to BBB breakdown in patients with PD.

Feeding-produced subchronic high plasma levels of uric acid improve behavioral dysfunction in 6-hydroxydopamine-induced mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

The development of Parkinson's disease (PD) involves the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons caused by oxidative stress. Accumulating clinical evidence indicates that high blood levels of uric acid (UA), an intrinsic antioxidative substance, are associated with reduced risk of PD. However, this hypothesis has not been confirmed by in-vivo experiments. The present study investigated the effects of UA on behavioral abnormalities in the development of PD. We used unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned mice, which were fed on a diet containing 1% UA and 2.5% potassium oxonate (an uricase inhibitor) to induce hyperuricemia. A significant elevation in UA levels was found in groups that were fed a UA diet. The 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned mice showed impaired rotarod performance and increased apomorphine-induced contralateral rotations. These behavioral abnormalities were significantly reversed by feeding a UA diet for 1 week before and 5 weeks after surgery (subchronic hyperuricemia). These behavioral improvements occurred in parallel with recovery of tyrosine hydroxylase protein levels in the lesioned striatal side. The present study with a dietary hyperuricemia mice model confirms that UA exerts a neuroprotective effect on dopaminergic neuronal loss, improving motor dysfunction and ameliorating PD development.

Oncostatin M-induced blood-brain barrier impairment is due to prolonged activation of STAT3 signaling in vitro.

Oncostatin M (OSM) is a member of the interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokines. We previously demonstrated that OSM induces blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment. However, functional characterization of IL-6 family cytokines in BBB regulation and the cytokine-related intracellular signaling pathway remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that among IL-6 family cytokines, including IL-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), OSM is the most potent molecule for inducing BBB dysfunction via prolonged activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 following Janus-activated kinase (JAK) activation. OSM but not IL-6 and LIF (100 ng/mL for 24 hours) markedly produced increased sodium fluorescein permeability and decreased transendothelial electrical resistance in rat brain endothelial cell (RBEC) monolayers. This OSM-induced BBB dysfunction was accompanied by decreased levels of claudin-5 expression in RBECs, which were ameliorated by JAK inhibitor. We examined the time-course of STAT3 phosphorylation in RBECs treated with OSM, IL-6, and LIF. OSM upregulated STAT3 phosphorylation levels during a 24 hours period with a peak at 10 minutes. While IL-6 and LIF transiently increased phosphorylated STAT3 at 10 minutes after addition, this phosphorylation decreased during the period from 1 to 24 hours after addition. These findings suggest that OSM-induced sustained increases in STAT3 phosphorylation levels largely contribute to BBB impairment. Thus, elevated OSM levels and activation of brain endothelial JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway under pathological conditions should be considered as a possible hallmark for induction and development of BBB impairment.

Brain pericyte-derived soluble factors enhance insulin sensitivity in GT1-7 hypothalamic neurons.

Insulin signaling in the hypothalamus plays an important role in food intake and glucose homeostasis. Hypothalamic neuronal functions are modulated by glial cells; these form an extensive network connecting the neurons and cerebral vasculature, known as the neurovascular unit (NVU). Brain pericytes are periendothelial accessory structures of the blood-brain barrier and integral members of the NVU. However, the interaction between pericytes and neurons is largely unexplored. Here, we investigate whether brain pericytes could affect hypothalamic neuronal insulin signaling. Our immunohistochemical observations demonstrated the existence of pericytes in the mouse hypothalamus, exhibiting immunoreactivity of platelet-derived growth factor receptor ß (a pericyte marker), and laminin, a basal lamina marker. We then exposed a murine hypothalamic neuronal cell line, GT1-7, to conditioned medium obtained from primary cultures of rat brain pericytes. Pericyte-conditioned medium (PCM), but not astrocyte- or aortic smooth muscle cell-conditioned medium, increased the insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt in GT1-7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. PCM also enhanced insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor ß without changing its expression or localization in cytosolic or plasma membrane fractions. These results suggest that pericytes, rather than astrocytes, increase insulin sensitivity in hypothalamic neurons by releasing soluble factors under physiological conditions in the NVU.

Elevated permeability of the blood-brain barrier in mice intratracheally administered porcine pancreatic elastase.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) shows progressive, irreversible airflow limitation induced by emphysema and lung inflammation. The aim of the present study was to determine if COPD conditions induce blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction. We found that the intratracheal administration of porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE; 3 U) induced alveolar enlargement, increased neutrophil number in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and decreased blood oxygen saturation in mice at 21 days after inhalation. In parallel with these lung damages, BBB permeability to sodium fluorescein and Evans blue albumin was markedly increased. Our findings demonstrate that COPD conditions are associated with risk for BBB impairment.

Metformin induces up-regulation of blood-brain barrier functions by activating AMP-activated protein kinase in rat brain microvascular endothelial cells.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption occurs frequently in CNS diseases and injuries. Few drugs have been developed as therapeutic candidates for facilitating BBB functions. Here, we examined whether metformin up-regulates BBB functions using rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBECs). Metformin, concentration- and time-dependently increased transendothelial electrical resistance of RBEC monolayers, and decreased RBEC permeability to sodium fluorescein and Evans blue albumin. These effects of metformin were blocked by compound C, an inhibitor of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK stimulation with an AMPK activator, AICAR, enhanced BBB functions. These findings indicate that metformin induces up-regulation of BBB functions via AMPK activation.

Paracellular barrier and tight junction protein expression in the immortalized brain endothelial cell lines bEND.3, bEND.5 and mouse brain endothelial cell 4.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is formed by brain endothelial cells. Many immortalized brain endothelial cell lines have been established; these have been used as in vitro BBB models. The aim of the present study was to assess the paracellular barrier properties of the immortalized mouse brain endothelial cell lines bEND.3, bEND.5 cells, and mouse brain endothelial cell 4 (MBEC4), and those of the primary mouse brain endothelial cells pMBECs. bEND.3 cells showed low permeability to sodium fluorescein and obvious staining of tight junction proteins (claudin-5, occludin and ZO-1) similar to pMBECs; these barrier properties of MBEC4 and bEND.5 cells were low. In addition, bEND.3 cells expressed the highest level of claudin-5 among all cells. These results suggest that bEND.3 cells are a convenient and useful model for evaluating BBB function, especially the paracellular barrier.

Aging decreases docosahexaenoic acid transport across the blood-brain barrier in C57BL/6J mice.

Nutrients are actively taken up by the brain via various transporters at the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A lack of specific nutrients in the aged brain, including decreased levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is associated with memory and cognitive dysfunction. To compensate for decreased brain DHA, orally supplied DHA must be transported from the circulating blood to the brain across the BBB through transport carriers, including major facilitator superfamily domain-containing protein 2a (MFSD2A) and fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5) that transport esterified and non-esterified DHA, respectively. Although it is known that the integrity of the BBB is altered during aging, the impact of aging on DHA transport across the BBB has not been fully elucidated. We used 2-, 8-, 12-, and 24-month-old male C57BL/6 mice to evaluate brain uptake of [14C]DHA, as the non-esterified form, using an in situ transcardiac brain perfusion technique. Primary culture of rat brain endothelial cells (RBECs) was used to evaluate the effect of siRNA-mediated MFSD2A knockdown on cellular uptake of [14C]DHA. We observed that the 12- and 24-month-old mice exhibited significant reductions in brain uptake of [14C]DHA and decreased MFSD2A protein expression in the brain microvasculature compared with that of the 2-month-old mice; nevertheless, FABP5 protein expression was up-regulated with age. Brain uptake of [14C]DHA was inhibited by excess unlabeled DHA in 2-month-old mice. Transfection of MFSD2A siRNA into RBECs decreased the MFSD2A protein expression levels by 30% and reduced cellular uptake of [14C]DHA by 20%. These results suggest that MFSD2A is involved in non-esterified DHA transport at the BBB. Therefore, the decreased DHA transport across the BBB that occurs with aging could be due to age-related down-regulation of MFSD2A rather than FABP5.

A memory-improving dipeptide, Tyr-Pro, can reach the mouse brain after oral administration.

The transport and accumulation of orally administered functional food-derived peptides in the brain was not fully explored. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to provide critical evidence regarding brain accumulation of a memory-improving soy dipeptide, Tyr-Pro, following oral administration. Stable isotope-labeled Tyr-Pro (Tyr-[13C5,15N]Pro) was orally administered to male ICR mice at 10 or 100 mg/kg. Surprisingly, the intact labeled Tyr-Pro exhibited maximal plasma and brain levels 15 min after administration (plasma: area under the curve [AUC0-120 min], 1331 ± 267 pmol·min/mL-plasma; brain: AUC0-120 min of 0.34 ± 0.11 pmol·min/mg-dry brain, at 10 mg/kg). In addition, we detected labeled Tyr-Pro in the brain parenchyma, indicating a validated blood-brain-barrier (BBB) transportability. Moreover, we confirmed the preferable accumulation of Tyr-Pro in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cortex with > 0.02 pmol/mg-tissue. In conclusion, we provided the first evidence that orally administered Tyr-Pro at 10 mg/kg directly entered the blood circulation with an absorption ratio of 0.15%, of which 2.5% of Tyr-Pro was transported from the plasma to the mouse brain parenchyma.

Altered serum levels of platelet-derived growth factor receptor ß and cluster of differentiation 13 suggest a role for pericytes in West syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Pericytes play a role in the maintenance of the blood-brain barrier and neuroinflammation, attracting attention as to whether they are also involved in the pathogenesis of epilepsy.This study aimed to explore the relationship between West syndrome and pericytes. METHODS: Eighteen Japanese pediatric West syndrome patients and nine controls aged 2 years or younger were retrospectively enrolled in this study. We assessed theserumlevels of pericyte markers, serum PDGFRß (platelet-derived growth factor receptorß),CD13 (aminopeptidase N), and 27 cytokines in 17 pediatric patients with West syndrome and the control group. RESULTS: Patients with West syndrome exhibited significantly increased CD13 and decreased PDGFRß levels, compared with controls but not serum cytokine levels. These values did not differ significantly between symptomatic and idiopathic West syndrome. CONCLUSION: Pericytes might be implicated in the pathogenesis of West syndrome.

Brain pericytes among cells constituting the blood-brain barrier are highly sensitive to tumor necrosis factor-α, releasing matrix metalloproteinase-9 and migrating in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Increased matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in the plasma and brain is associated with blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption through proteolytic activity in neuroinflammatory diseases. MMP-9 is present in the brain microvasculature and its vicinity, where brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), pericytes and astrocytes constitute the BBB. Little is known about the cellular source and role of MMP-9 at the BBB. Here, we examined the ability of pericytes to release MMP-9 and migrate in response to inflammatory mediators in comparison with BMECs and astrocytes, using primary cultures isolated from rat brains. METHODS: The culture supernatants were collected from primary cultures of rat brain endothelial cells, pericytes, or astrocytes. MMP-9 activities and levels in the supernatants were measured by gelatin zymography and western blot, respectively. The involvement of signaling molecules including mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt in the mediation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced MMP-9 release was examined using specific inhibitors. The functional activity of MMP-9 was evaluated by a cell migration assay. RESULTS: Zymographic and western blot analyses demonstrated that TNF-α stimulated pericytes to release MMP-9, and this release was much higher than from BMECs or astrocytes. Other inflammatory mediators [interleukin (IL)-1ß, interferon-γ, IL-6 and lipopolysaccharide] failed to induce MMP-9 release from pericytes. TNF-α-induced MMP-9 release from pericytes was found to be mediated by MAPKs and PI3K. Scratch wound healing assay showed that in contrast to BMECs and astrocytes the extent of pericyte migration was significantly increased by TNF-α. This pericyte migration was inhibited by anti-MMP-9 antibody. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that pericytes are most sensitive to TNF-α in terms of MMP-9 release, and are the major source of MMP-9 at the BBB. This pericyte-derived MMP-9 initiated cellular migration of pericytes, which might be involved in pericyte loss in the damaged BBB.

Autocrine and paracrine up-regulation of blood-brain barrier function by plasminogen activator inhibitor-1.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the interface that separates the central nervous system (CNS) from the peripheral circulation. An increase in blood-borne substances including cytokines in plasma and brain affects BBB function, and this is associated with the development of pathogenesis of a number of diseases. Plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 regulates the plasminogen activator/plasmin system as a serpin in the periphery and the CNS. We investigated whether PAI-1 alters BBB function using in vitro models of the BBB consisting of rat primary brain endothelial cells (RBECs) alone and co-cultured with pericytes. We found that PAI-1 increased the tightness of the brain endothelial barrier in a time- and dose-dependent manner, as shown by an increase in the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and a decrease in the permeability to sodium fluorescein (Na-F). RBECs responded equally to PAI-1 in the blood-facing and brain-facing sides of the brain, leading to a decrease in Na-F permeability. In addition, RBECs constitutively released PAI-1 into the blood-facing (luminal) and brain-facing (abluminal) sides. This release was polarized in favor of the luminal side and facilitated by serum. The neutralization of PAI-1 by an antibody to PAI-1 in RBEC/pericyte co-culture more robustly reduced TEER of RBECs than in RBEC monolayers. These findings suggest that PAI-1 derived from the neurovascular unit and peripheral vascular system participates as a positive regulator of the BBB in facilitating the barrier function of the endothelial tight junctions.

Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction Amplifies the Development of Neuroinflammation: Understanding of Cellular Events in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells for Prevention and Treatment of BBB Dysfunction.

Neuroinflammation is involved in the onset or progression of various neurodegenerative diseases. Initiation of neuroinflammation is triggered by endogenous substances (damage-associated molecular patterns) and/or exogenous pathogens. Activation of glial cells (microglia and astrocytes) is widely recognized as a hallmark of neuroinflammation and triggers the release of proinflammatory cytokines, leading to neurotoxicity and neuronal dysfunction. Another feature associated with neuroinflammatory diseases is impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB, which is composed of brain endothelial cells connected by tight junctions, maintains brain homeostasis and protects neurons. Impairment of this barrier allows trafficking of immune cells or plasma proteins into the brain parenchyma and subsequent inflammatory processes in the brain. Besides neurons, activated glial cells also affect BBB integrity. Therefore, BBB dysfunction can amplify neuroinflammation and act as a key process in the development of neuroinflammation. BBB integrity is determined by the integration of multiple signaling pathways within brain endothelial cells through intercellular communication between brain endothelial cells and brain perivascular cells (pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes). For prevention of BBB disruption, both cellular components, such as signaling molecules in brain endothelial cells, and non-cellular components, such as inflammatory mediators released by perivascular cells, should be considered. Thus, understanding of intracellular signaling pathways that disrupt the BBB can provide novel treatments for neurological diseases associated with neuroinflammation. In this review, we discuss current knowledge regarding the underlying mechanisms involved in BBB impairment by inflammatory mediators released by perivascular cells.

The Neuroinflammatory Role of Pericytes in Epilepsy.

Pericytes are a component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) neurovascular unit, in which they play a crucial role in BBB integrity and are also implicated in neuroinflammation. The association between pericytes, BBB dysfunction, and the pathophysiology of epilepsy has been investigated, and links between epilepsy and pericytes have been identified. Here, we review current knowledge about the role of pericytes in epilepsy. Clinical evidence has shown an accumulation of pericytes with altered morphology in the cerebral vascular territories of patients with intractable epilepsy. In vitro, proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1ß, TNFα, and IL-6, cause morphological changes in human-derived pericytes, where IL-6 leads to cell damage. Experimental studies using epileptic animal models have shown that cerebrovascular pericytes undergo redistribution and remodeling, potentially contributing to BBB permeability. These series of pericyte-related modifications are promoted by proinflammatory cytokines, of which the most pronounced alterations are caused by IL-1ß, a cytokine involved in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Furthermore, the pericyte-glial scarring process in leaky capillaries was detected in the hippocampus during seizure progression. In addition, pericytes respond more sensitively to proinflammatory cytokines than microglia and can also activate microglia. Thus, pericytes may function as sensors of the inflammatory response. Finally, both in vitro and in vivo studies have highlighted the potential of pericytes as a therapeutic target for seizure disorders.

Interleukin-1ß in peripheral monocytes is associated with seizure frequency in pediatric drug-resistant epilepsy.

In this study, we assessed circulating immune cells and plasma cytokine levels in 15 pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). DRE patients had a significantly higher percentage of CD14+ monocytes positive for IL-1ß, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-6, and TNF-α than controls. Significantly higher intracellular levels of IFN-γ in CD4+ T cells and NK cells were also found in DRE patients. The level of IL-1ß+ CD14+ monocytes correlated with seizure frequency, and intracellular levels of IFN-γ in NKT-like cells were negatively correlated with the duration of epilepsy. Peripheral immune cells might be involved in the pathogenesis of DRE.

Lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia induce dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier in rat microvascular endothelial cells co-cultured with microglia.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is formed by brain capillary endothelial cells, astrocytes, pericytes, microglia, and neurons. BBB disruption under pathological conditions such as neurodegenerative disease and inflammation is observed in parallel with microglial activation. To test whether activation of microglia is linked to BBB dysfunction, we evaluated the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on BBB functions in an in vitro co-culture system with rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBEC) and microglia. When LPS was added for 6 h to the abluminal side of RBEC/microglia co-culture at a concentration showing no effects on the RBEC monolayer, transendothelial electrical resistance was decreased and permeability to sodium-fluorescein was increased in RBEC. Immunofluorescence staining for tight junction proteins demonstrated that zonula occludens-1-, claudin-5-, and occludin-like immunoreactivities at the intercellular borders of RBEC were fragmented in the presence of LPS-activated microglia. These functional changes induced by LPS-activated microglia were blocked by the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase inhibitor, diphenyleneiodonium chloride. The present findings suggest that LPS activates microglia to induce dysfunction of the BBB by producing reactive oxygen species through NADPH oxidase.