The inflammatory and tumor-promoting sesquiterpene lactone, thapsigargin, activates platelets by selective mobilization of calcium as shown by protein phosphorylations.

We have studied the activation of human blood platelets by the inflammatory and tumor-promoting sesquiterpene lactone, thapsigargin. The effect of thapsigargin was compared with other common agonists (calcium ionophore A23187, phorbol ester TPA and thrombin). Platelet aggregation, serotonin release, raised cytoplasmic free calcium level and phosphorylation of platelet proteins was examined in platelet-rich plasma and washed platelet suspension. In contrast to A23187 and thrombin, the platelet activation induced by thapsigargin developed slowly, with maximal response obtained after 2-3 min. Both the thapsigargin- and the A23187-induced serotonin releases were synergistically increased by TPA. Studies of the phosphorylation of platelet proteins revealed that thapsigargin and A23187 equally well induced a selective phosphorylation of two proteins with apparent molecular masses of 20 kDa and 47 kDa. These proteins, which are substrates of myosin light-chain kinase and protein kinase C respectively, are known to be involved in platelet activation. The thapsigargin-induced platelet aggregation and serotonin release was completely inhibited by class I (nimodipine), class II (verapamil) and class III (diltiazem) calcium-channel blockers. The inhibitory activity of nimodipine was abolished by the corresponding 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium-channel agonist, BAY K 8644. These results shows that the thapsigargin-induced platelet activation is mediated by an increase in the cytoplasmic free calcium level, presumably obtained by stimulation of the passive calcium transport through specific channels. These thapsigargin-sensitive channels should predominantly be located in the membranes of intracellular calcium stores rather than in the plasma membrane, because removal of extracellular calcium by EGTA had only an insignificant effect on the thapsigargin-induced rise in cytoplasmic free calcium level.

Effect of thapsigargin on cytoplasmic Ca2+ and proliferation of human lymphocytes in relation to AIDS.

The tumor-promoting sesquiterpene lactone, thapsigargin, induced a dose-dependent increase of the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([ Ca2+]i) in human lymphocytes from a resting level between 100 and 150 nM up to about 1 microM. Half-maximum response was found at about 1 nM of thapsigargin, full response at 100 nM. The effect of thapsigargin on [Ca2+]i exceeded that of phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) which raised [Ca2+]i to maximum 300 nM. In combination with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), thapsigargin stimulated the proliferation of normal lymphocytes to the same extent as did PHA, whereas the thapsigargin/PMA treatment could not restore the defective proliferation of AIDS lymphocytes in spite of the increased [Ca2+]i. Thapsigargin or PMA added separately had no stimulatory effects on cell proliferation. The thapsigargin/PMA treatment caused an increase in the interleukin-2 (IL-2) production of the lymphocytes, which was much higher than that caused by the PHA treatment, even in AIDS lymphocytes. Moreover, the thapsigargin/PMA treatment stimulated the expression of the IL-2 receptors on both normal and AIDS lymphocytes, similar to the effect of PHA. It is concluded that thapsigargin exerts its effects on lymphocyte proliferation by increasing [Ca2+]i, and that the general defect of AIDS lymphocytes, rather than being ascribed to the initiating signal systems, is associated with later events related to DNA synthesis and proliferation.

Ca2+ transients and Mn2+ entry in human neutrophils induced by thapsigargin.

Human neutrophils, preloaded with the fluorescent probe, Fura-2, were exposed to Ca2+-releasing agents. The monitored traces of fluorescence were transformed by computer to cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([ Ca2+]i). Due to quenching of Fura-2, the addition of Mn2+ enabled us to compute the cytosolic concentration of total manganese ([Mn]i). The agents used were the novel Ca2+-mobilizing agent, thapsigargin (Tg), the chemotactic peptide, formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (FMLP), and the divalent cation ionophore, A23187. The agents caused transient rises of [Ca2+]i and monotonous rises of [Mn]i, suggesting influx but no efflux of Mn2+. The rise time of [Ca2+]i and the time constants and magnitude of the apparent Mn2+ influx were strongly dependent on the sequence of addition of the agonist and Ca2+. Contrary to FMLP, Tg needed several minutes to exert its full effect on the rise of [Ca2+]i and on the influx of Mn2+, the latter being dependent on two phases, activation and partial inactivation. Pretreatment with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) inhibited the responses of Tg, FMLP and A23187. For comparison, human red blood cells were tested. Contrary to A23187, Tg did not induce Ca2+ uptake in ATP-depleted red cells but increased the Ca2+ pump flux in intact red cells by 10%. The experimental data and computer simulations of the granulocyte data suggest that time-dependent changes of both passive Ca2+ flux into the cytosol and Ca2+ flux of the plasma membrane pump are involved in the transient [Ca2+]i response.

Internal Ca2+ mobilization and secretion in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells.

Since secretion from intact bovine adrenal chromaffin cells in response to depolarization by nicotine is triggered by a rise in the concentration of intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) to about 200-300 nM above basal, it has been assumed that the failure of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3)-mobilizing muscarinic agonists to induce secretion reflects the fact that the 50 nM rise in [Ca2+]i they elicit is insufficient to trigger the exocytotic machinery. A recent report, however, has demonstrated that some of the nicotine-induced rise in [Ca2+]i could originate from the InsP3-releasable Ca2+ store. The role of this Ca2+ store in secretion from bovine adrenal chromaffin cells is therefore unclear. In order to investigate in more detail the role of the InsP3-sensitive Ca2+ store in secretion from these cells, we have used a combination of an InsP3-mobilizing muscarinic agonist and the sesquiterpene lactone thapsigargin (TG), which releases internal Ca2+ without concomitant breakdown of inositol lipids or protein kinase C activation, to examine the events which follow depletion of the releasable Ca2+ store in these cells. Monitoring [Ca2+]i using Fura-2 demonstrated that TG released Ca2+ from the InsP3-sensitive store and, additionally, that the Ca2+ response to TG was composed of two distinct, temporally separated, components: a) a slow (1 min) increase in [Ca2+]i to approximately 50 nM above basal that was independent of extracellular Ca2+ and b) the maintenance of this level at a new steady-state that was dependent on the continual entry of extracellular Ca2+.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Calcium efflux across the plasma membrane of rat parotid acinar cells is unaffected by receptor activation or by the microsomal calcium ATPase inhibitor, thapsigargin.

The rate of Ca2+ extrusion across the plasma membrane of rat parotid acinar cells was determined by measuring the decay of the intracellular calcium concentration, [Ca2+]i, following the addition of EGTA to agonist stimulated cells. In the presence of extracellular Ca2+, the muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonist, methacholine, rapidly increased [Ca2+]i (peaking within 5 s), which then decreased to a higher steady state level. This elevated steady state level was dependent on extracellular Ca2+ concentration. Likewise, thapsigargin, a non-phorbol ester tumor promoter that does not increase inositol phosphates, gradually increased [Ca2+]i, peaking within 1 min and then declining to a new elevated plateau level which was also dependent on extracellular Ca2+. [Ca2+]i, elevated by methacholine or thapsigargin, was rapidly decreased by the addition of EGTA by a process the kinetics of which depended on the value of [Ca2+]i before the addition of EGTA. That is, [Ca2+]i increased as a function of the extracellular Ca2+ concentration and also the apparent half-time for Ca2+ extrusion following the addition of EGTA to cells was increased as the [Ca2+]i increased. This presumably reflects the saturable nature of the Ca2+ extrusion mechanism. The steady state [Ca2+]i in cells stimulated with methacholine or thapsigargin in nominally Ca2+ free medium was similar to the steady state [Ca2+]i in unstimulated cells in normal, Ca2(+)-containing medium. Under these similar [Ca2+]i conditions, stimulated and unstimulated cells showed a similar time course of decay upon addition of EGTA. In addition, neither methacholine nor phorbol myristate acetate decreased the sustained elevation of [Ca2+]i induced by ionomycin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Mechanisms of activated Ca2+ entry in the rat pancreatoma cell line, AR4-2J.

The characteristics of Ca2+ entry activated by surface receptor agonists and membrane depolarization were studied in the rat pancreatoma cell line, AR4-2J. Ca2+ mobilization activated by substance P, bombesin, or muscarinic receptor stimulation was found to involve both Ca2+ release and entry. In addition, depolarization of the surface membrane of AR4-2J cells with elevated concentrations of K+ activated Ca2+ entry. Ca2+ entry induced by membrane depolarization was inhibited by the L-channel antagonist, nimodipine, while that due to surface receptor agonists was not inhibited by this agent. The microsomal Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor, thapsigargin, caused both depletion of the agonist-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ pool and sustained Ca2+ influx indistinguishable from that produced by bombesin or methacholine. These results confirm that, unlike the pancreatic acinar cells from which they are presumably derived, AR4-2J cells express voltage-sensitive, dihydropyridine-inhibitable Ca2+ channels. However, in contrast to previous reports with this cell line, in the AR4-2J cells in use in our laboratory, and under our experimental conditions, surface receptor agonists (including substance P) do not cause Ca2+ influx through voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels. Instead, we conclude that agonist-activated Ca2+ mobilization is initiated by (1,4,5)IP3-mediated intracellular Ca2+ release and that Ca2+ influx is regulated primarily, if not exclusively, by the state of depletion of the (1,4,5)IP3-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ pool.

Y1 receptors for neuropeptide Y are coupled to mobilization of intracellular calcium and inhibition of adenylate cyclase.

Two types of binding sites have previously been described for neuropeptide Y (NPY), called Y1 and Y2 receptors. The intracellular events following Y1 receptor activation was studied in the human neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC. Both NPY and the specific Y1 receptor ligand, [Leu31,Pro34]-NPY, caused a rapid and transient increase in the concentration of free calcium in the cytoplasm as measured by the fluorescent probe, Fura-2. The effect of both peptides was independent of extracellular calcium as addition of EGTA or manganese neither changed the size nor the shape of the calcium response. The calcium response to NPY was abolished by pretreatment with thapsigargin, which can selectively deplete a calcium store in the endoplasmic reticulum. Y1 receptor stimulation, by both NPY and [Leu31,Pro34]NPY, also inhibited the forskolin-stimulated cAMP production with an EC50 of 3.5 nM. There was a close relation between the receptor binding and the cellular effects as half-maximal displacement of [125I-Tyr36]monoiodoNPY from the receptor was obtained with 2.1 nM NPY. The Y2-specific ligand NPY(16-36)peptide had no effect on either intracellular calcium or cAMP levels in the SK-N-MC cells. It is concluded that Y1 receptor stimulation is associated with both mobilization of intracellular calcium and inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity.

Structure-activity relationships of analogues of thapsigargin modified at O-11 and O-12.

A number of analogues of thapsigargin have been synthesized by alkylating or acylating O-11 and O-12 in the lactol obtained by reducing thapsigargicin. Introduction of alpha-disposed substituents decreased the Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitory potency of the analogue, whereas the enzyme was more tolerant toward beta-disposed substituents, indicating that the alpha-face of the lactone ring is in close contact with the binding site when the inhibitor is bound to the enzyme.

Biochemical and ultrastructural studies suggest that the effects of thapsigargin on human platelets are mediated by changes in intracellular calcium but not by intracellular histamine.

The involvement of intracellular histamine in thapsigargin (Tg)-induced platelet aggregation was studied. Platelet aggregation induced by 0.25 and 0.5 microM Tg was not accompanied by a rise in intracellular histamine but a significant (p < 0.01) increase in the level of intracellular histamine was observed at 1 microM Tg. Preincubation of platelets with inhibitors of histamine metabolizing enzymes had little effect on intracellular histamine levels in platelets stimulated by 0.5 microM Tg. In addition, the inhibitors of histidine decarboxylase (HDC), alpha-methyl histidine (alpha-MH) and alpha-fluoromethyl histidine (alpha-FMH) failed to inhibit Tg-induced aggregation. The intracellular histamine receptor antagonist, N,N-diethyl-2-[4-(phenylmethyl)phenoxy] ethanamine. HCl (DPPE), inhibited Tg-induced aggregation but with IC50 values dependent on the concentration of agonist used. The inhibitory effects of DPPE on Tg-induced aggregation were not reversed by the addition of histamine to saponin-permeabilized platelets suggesting non-histamine mediated effects of DPPE on Tg-induced aggregation. Tg stimulated an increase in the cytosolic free calcium concentration which was unaffected by DPPE indicating that the effects of DPPE are also not due to the inhibition of mobilization of cytosolic calcium. The ultrastructural studies suggest that the major Tg-induced changes (pseudopod formation and granule centralization) are consistent with a primary role for Tg to mobilize calcium; DPPE had very little effect on these ultrastructural changes. The results indicate that the effects of Tg on human platelets are mediated by an increase in cytosolic calcium but not by intracellular histamine.

Exclusion of known protease-activated receptors in factor VIIa-induced signal transduction.

The protease activity is mandatory for intracellular activities induced by coagulation factor VIIa (FVIIa), and in this way it resembles signal transduction induced by thrombin and trypsin caused by specific, proteolytic cleavage of protease activated receptors (PARs). The mechanism for FVIIa-induced signal transduction is, however, not known although a mechanism involving PAR cleavage has been deduced from studies of cytosolic Ca2+ release and p44/p42 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation. In the present work we have examined the possibilities that i) FVIIa-induced signal transduction involves the activation of one of the four known PARs, or ii) exposure of cells to FVIIa releases a soluble ligand that is responsible for MAPK activation. For this purpose, we evaluated the effects of FVIIa, thrombin, FXa, trypsin and PAR agonist peptides on the Ca2+ release and MAPK activation in tissue factor-(TF) transfected baby hamster kidney (BHK[+TF]) cells and Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. FVIIa induced a significant MAPK signal in BHK(+TF) cells and in MDCK-I and -II cells whereas no MAPK activation was observed with thrombin, FXa or PAR agonist peptides. Thrombin, trypsin, PAR-1 and PAR-2 agonist peptides induced a prominent Ca2+ response in both cell types. In contrast the cells did not respond with a detectable Ca2+ signal when treated with FVIIa. These results suggest that the intracellular activity induced by FVIIa is distinctly different from that induced by trypsin, thrombin and FXa not involving any of the known PARs. Conditioned medium from BHK(+TF) cells treated with FVIIa failed to induce a MAPK response in untreated BHK(+TF) cells when FVIIa was removed by immunoadsorption from the medium prior to its transfer to the untreated BHK(+TF) cells. Although it is not possible entirely to exclude a transient response close to the cell surface, the data suggest that the intracellular response was not induced by an autocrine release of a soluble mediator to the medium.

Thapsigargin, a new calcium-dependent epithelial anion secretagogue.

1. Thapsigargin, a sesquiterpene lactone, was shown to cause electrogenic anion secretion in monolayers of human colonic epithelial cells, an effect which was crucially dependent upon calcium and did not involve eicosanoid formation. 2. To measure the secretory effect calcium needed to be present in the external bathing solution. By means of Fura-2 fluorescence measurements thapsigargin was shown to raise Cai by around 250 nM when the bathing solution contained calcium. In the nominal absence of external calcium thapsigargin raised Cai by only 60 nM, but from a lower basal value. This was insufficient to cause secretion. 3. Effects of other calcium-dependent secretagogues (e.g. lysylbradykinin) were inhibited in the presence of thapsigargin, whereas kinin responses were potentiated if the peptide was added following a stimulus which increases cyclic AMP. 4. From the data given here and the known behaviour of colonic epithelia it is concluded that thapsigargin increases Cai by a non-ionophoric mechanism by release from internal stores. Calcium-stimulated calcium influx then follows resulting in the opening of basolateral K channels, increasing the electrochemical gradient for chloride efflux, or alternatively by activating anion channels in the apical membrane. It is concluded that thapsigargin is a potentially important tool for examining epithelial mechanisms.

The ability of thapsigargin and thapsigargicin to activate cells involved in the inflammatory response.

The ability of thapsigargin and thapsigargicin to activate mast cells and leukocytes has been investigated. The thapsigargin-induced histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells was found to be dependent on the concentration of thapsigargin, the purity of the mast cell preparations, and the number of mast cells in suspension. Thapsigargin induced histamine release from human basophil leukocytes. Thapsigargin induced beta-glucuronidase and lysozyme release from human neutrophil leukocytes. Thapsigargin caused a release of histamine from mesentery, lung, and heart mast cells of the rat, but only to a minor extent from the corresponding guinea-pig cells. Thapsigargicin induced histamine release from mesentery, lung, and heart mast cells of the rat at concentrations from 0.1 microM but provoked only a release from the corresponding guinea-pig cells in the concentration-range 0.16 to 1.6 microM. Thapsigargin increased the cytoplasmic free calcium level in intact human blood platelets at concentrations from 3.0 nM.

Inhibition of human platelet aggregation by dihydropyrano- and dihydrofuranocoumarins, a new class of cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibitors.

Certain esters of dihydropyranocoumarin and dihydrofuranocoumarin alcohols have previously been shown to inhibit the cAMP-phosphodiesterase from bovine heart. We now report that these naturally occurring coumarins inhibit the high affinity (Km = 1.1 microM) cAMP-phosphodiesterase from human platelets with activities that closely correlate with those obtained using phosphodiesterase from bovine heart tissue. Additionally the coumarins inhibit the aggregation of human platelets induced with ADP, adrenaline and collagen with activities comparable to those of dipyridamole. A lack of significant correlation between these metabolic and functional activities indicates that there exist, besides cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibition, additional mechanisms of action for the platelet aggregation inhibitory effect of dihydropyrano- and dihydrofuranocoumarins.

Characteristics of stably expressed human dopamine D1a and D1b receptors: atypical behavior of the dopamine D1b receptor.

Human dopamine D1a and D1b receptors were stably expressed in Baby Hamster Kidney (BHK) or Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells. [3H]SCH23390 saturation experiments indicated the presence of only a single binding site in the D1a expressing cell line with a Kd of 0.5 nM. In D1b expressing cell lines, two binding sites were observed with Kd values of 0.5 and 5 nM in CHO cells and 0.05 and 1.6 nM in BHK cells, respectively. Neither of the receptors affected Ca2+ metabolism whereas they both were coupled in a stimulatory fashion to adenylyl cyclase. The pharmacological profile of both the D1a and D1b receptors as assessed from inhibition of specific [3H]SCH 23390 binding was classical D1-like. Thus, benzazepine derivatives as well as the atypical neuroleptics, clozapine and fluperlapine, exhibited high affinity whereas D2 selective compounds like sulpiride and spiperone had low affinity for these receptors. Besides SCH 23390, only NNC 112, fluphenazine and bulbocapnine were able to discriminate between the two states of the D1b receptor. In case of the D1a receptor, the Ki values obtained in binding experiments were very similar to Ki values obtained from inhibition of dopamine stimulated adenylyl cyclase. In the D1b expressing cell line, the Ki values obtained from inhibition of the dopamine stimulated adenylyl cyclase indicated a significantly better correlation with the state of the D1b receptor showing high affinity for antagonists. In agreement with observations from binding experiments, dopamine was around 20 fold more potent in stimulating adenylyl cyclase via the D1b receptor as compared to the D1a receptor.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Functional identification and monitoring of individual alpha and beta cells in cultured mouse islets of Langerhans.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate, by use of fluorescence microscopy and immunofluorescence stainings, the use of a fluorescent membrane potential sensitive probe as a means to identify and monitor changes in membrane potential of individual cell types in whole islets of Langerhans over time. Our work supports the use of the fluorescent probe bis-(1,3 dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol (diBAC(4)(3)), in identification of single alpha and beta cells in the periphery of mouse pancreatic islets cultured on extracellular matrix. At a low extracellular glucose concentration (3 mM), heterogeneous staining of the islets was observed. Approximately 97% of the peripheral cells that stained brightly with diBAC(4)(3) were glucagon positive. Additional diBAC(4)(3) studies, demonstrated that an increase in glucose concentration from 3 to 10 mM is paralleled by repolarization of alpha cells and depolarization of beta cells. This suggests that reciprocity of glucagon and insulin release upon glucose stimulation is coupled to divergent changes in membrane potential of these cell types and supports the use of diBAC(4)(3) as a means to detect changes in secretion in both cell types.

The calcium mobilizing tumor promoting agent, thapsigargin elevates the platelet cytoplasmic free calcium concentration to a higher steady state level. A possible mechanism of action for the tumor promotion.

The ability of the platelet agonists thapsigargin (Tg) and thrombin to elevate the cytoplasmic free calcium level ([Ca2+]i) was examined. Both agonists induced a transient increase of [Ca2+]i with a different time-course, however. Thus, the maximal [Ca2+]i was reached 15 sec and 2 min after stimulation with thrombin and Tg, respectively. The thrombin induced rise of [Ca2+]i was reversible, which indicates that active calcium sequestration and/or extrusion is operating. Tg affected [Ca2+]i in a divergent manner, thus, [Ca2+]i was stabilized on a elevated level without initial formation of a pronounced peak. The decline in [Ca2+]i observed after thrombin stimulation was not impaired by the calmodulin binding drug trifluoperazine but it was strongly reduced by vanadate, which suggests the active calcium transport systems to be insensitive to calmodulin. We put forward the hypothesis that the tumor promoting activity of Tg is attributable to its ability to stabilize [Ca2+]i on a new elevated steady state level.

Coronary vasodilatory, spasmolytic and cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibitory properties of dihydropyranocoumarins and dihydrofuranocoumarins.

Twenty-three dihydropyrano- and dihydrofuranocoumarins, most of plant origin, were examined for their effects on the coronary flow of isolated perfused guinea-pig heart, on the Ba2+-induced spasms in isolated guinea-pig ileum, on the cAMP level in guinea-pig heart homogenate and on the cAMP metabolising activity of purified beef heart cAMP-phosphodiesterase. For certain esters of dihydropyranocoumarin- and dihydrofuranocoumarin alcohols coronary vasodilatory and spasmolytic activities comparable to those of papaverine were observed. A very close correlation between the coronary vasodilatory and the spasmolytic activity was found. The most potent structures maximally increased the cAMP level from 19 pmol/mg protein to about 60 pmol/mg protein and inhibited the cAMP-phosphodiesterase activity with about 90%. The potencies were comparable to those of papaverine. A significant correlation was obtained between the coronary vasodilatory and the cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibitory activity. The results indicate involvement of cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibition in coronary vasodilatory effects of acyloxydihydropyrano- and acyloxydihydrofurano-coumarins.

Stimulatory effect of thapsigargin, a non-TPA-type tumor promoter, on arachidonic acid metabolism in the murine keratinocyte line HEL30 and on epidermal cell proliferation in vivo as compared to the effects of phorbol ester TPA.

The effect of thapsigargin (Tg), a non-12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) type skin tumor promoter, on arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) formation in HEL30 keratinocytes and on epidermal DNA synthesis in vitro and in vivo (mouse skin) was investigated and compared with that of the phorbol ester TPA. On a molar basis Tg was 30-fold more potent in inducing the arachidonic acid/PGE2 release than TPA. Applied together, the two agents showed a strong synergistic action. The response critically depended on the presence of Ca2+ in the extracellular medium. While the TPA-induced release was mediated by protein kinase C (PKC) the Tg-induced release was not. In contrast to TPA (1 microM), which is a stimulator of HEL30 DNA synthesis, Tg (0.1-1 microM) inhibited DNA labeling in vitro due to a pronounced cytotoxic effect. TPA did not exhibit such an effect. In vivo both agents were practically equipotent in inducing epidermal DNA synthesis and hyperplasia with TPA having an approximately 10-fold higher irritating potential than Tg. It is concluded that the hyperplasiogenic and tumor-promoting effect of Tg in vivo is due to cytotoxicity causing cell death and regenerative hyperproliferation. Thus, Tg-induced skin tumor promotion seems to resemble tumor promotion by mechanical skin wounding, whereas TPA evokes a more specific, i.e. PKC-mediated response. Since despite these mechanistic differences both agents induce an immediate release of arachidonic acid/PGE2 in keratinocytes, this response may be considered to provide an in vitro parameter for irritancy and tumor promotion.

Effects of thapsigargin in isolated rat thoracic aorta.

The effect of thapsigargin (Tg) was studied in rat thoracic aorta. Tg (10(-8)-10(-5) M) had a dual effect on rat aorta. Thus, Tg induced a concentration dependent increase in basal tone in normal physiological salt solution (PSS), while Tg in potassium (K+) precontracted aortic rings caused a concentration related relaxation and shifted the K+-concentration response curve to the right and depressed the maximal response to K+. Removal of vascular endothelium abolished the relaxant response to Tg and increased the sensitivity of the preparations to the contractile effect of Tg. The contractile response to Tg was resistent to wash-out in drug-free PSS and was not affected by phentolamine, indomethacin or mepyramine but partly reduced by the calcium-antagonist nitrendipine and eliminated by wash-out in calcium-free PSS. Atropine eliminated the endothelium dependent relaxant effect of carbachol, but had no effect on the Tg or on the calcium ionophore A 23187 evoked relaxation. Ultraviolet radiation decreased the relaxant effect of Tg and A 23187 without affecting the carbachol induced relaxations. The results showed that vascular endothelium depressed the contractile effect of Tg and that Tg like A 23187 had an endothelium dependent relaxant effect on rat aorta different from that of carbachol. The results indicate that Tg in vascular smooth muscle acts by stimulating the transmembranal influx of extracellular calcium.

Simultaneous visualization of the translocation of protein kinase Calpha-green fluorescent protein hybrids and intracellular calcium concentrations.

The alpha isoform of protein kinase C (PKCalpha) is a ubiquitous protein kinase, which, upon activation, translocates rapidly from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. To follow this translocation, PKCalpha was tagged with a highly fluorescent derivative of green fluorescent protein and stably expressed in baby hamster kidney cells overexpressing the muscarinic type 1 receptor. Addition of the agonist carbamylcholine triggered the onset of translocation within 1 s. Half-maximal and maximal translocation occurred after about 3 and 15 s respectively. Plasma membrane association of the fusion protein was transient and the protein returned to the cytoplasm within about 45 s. A high-resolution study showed an almost homogeneous cytoplasmic distribution of tagged PKCalpha in unstimulated cells and virtually complete translocation to the plasma membrane in response to the phorbol ester, PMA. Simultaneous visualization of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and PKCalpha translocation in single cells showed a good correlation between these parameters at intermediate and high concentrations of agonist. At low agonist concentration, a small increase in [Ca2+]i was observed, without detectable translocation of PKCalpha. In contrast, PMA induced translocation of PKCalpha without any increase in [Ca2+]i. Neither cytochalasin D nor colcemid influenced the distribution or calcium-dependent translocation of tagged PKCalpha, indicating that PKCalpha translocation may be independent of both actin filaments and microtubules. The time course of PKCalpha translocation is compatible with diffusion of the protein from its cytoplasmic localization to the plasma membrane.