Compatibility between response position and either object typical size or semantic category: SNARC- and MARC-like effects in primary school children.

In two experiments, we administered two binary classification tasks to third- to fifth-grade students and found that either the conceptual size (Experiment 1) or semantic category (Experiment 2) of the target picture interacted with response position: Participants emitted faster and/or more accurate right- and left-side responses to stimuli referring to typically large and small objects (i.e., a SNARC [spatial-numerical association of response codes]-like effect) or to living and nonliving objects (i.e., a MARC [markedness association of response codes]-like effect), respectively. The effect of either stimulus dimension was present only when this dimension was the task-relevant one. These findings may be accounted for by the polarity compatibility principle. In binary classification tasks, one of the two relevant stimulus values (i.e., the dominant one) and one of the two response values would be coded as having a positive polarity, whereas the other would be coded as having a negative polarity. Response selection would be faster and/or more accurate when stimulus and response polarities are compatible. According to a less parsimonious hypothesis, the polarity principle would only explain the effect of the stimulus semantic category in Experiment 2, whereas the effect of stimulus conceptual size in Experiment 1 might be traced back to the fact that children spatially code the typical size of stimulus referents (even if only when the task requires accessing this stimulus dimension). Small and large objects would be represented relatively on the left and right, respectively, which would result in faster and/or more accurate responses when response position is compatible with the stimulus referent's position in this spatial representation.

When task sharing reduces interference: evidence for division-of-labour in Stroop-like tasks.

Performing a task with another person may either enhance or reduce the interference produced by task-irrelevant information. In three experiments, we employed the joint version of a Stroop-like task (i.e., the picture-word interference-PWI-task) to investigate some of the task features that seem to be critical in determining the effect of task-irrelevant information when the task is shared between two individuals. Participants were asked to perform a PWI task, which required to name a picture while ignoring a distractor word, first individually (in a baseline block of trials) and then co-acting with an alleged partner. Results showed that, compared to the baseline and to a condition in which participants continued to perform the PWI task individually, the belief of co-acting with another individual who was thought to be in charge of the distractor words suppressed the semantic interference effect when these words were in case alternation letters (e.g., "mOuSe"). Conversely, the semantic interference effect persisted when the co-actor was thought to be in charge of the same task as the participant, that is, the co-actor was thought to respond to the pictures. These results are accounted for by assuming that, when the participant knows that another person is in charge of the task-irrelevant information, a division-of-labour between participant and co-actor can be established. Such a division-of-labour may provide the participant with a strategy to oppose the semantic interference effect. Our findings, therefore, suggest that sharing a task with another person in charge of potentially interfering information can enable people to filter out this information from their own task representation.

Sequential modulation of (bottom-up) response activation and inhibition in a response conflict task: a single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study.

Many cognitive tasks involve a response conflict between the response selected on the basis of the task-relevant attribute and that primed by an irrelevant attribute. Although response priming has been extensively investigated, we still have little evidence on whether it entails both excitatory and inhibitory processes and the way in which these processes are modulated by the prior occurrence of a conflict between-response alternatives. To shed light on these issues, we tested motor cortex excitability during a two-choice compatibility task (a Simon task) by delivering single pulses of transcranial magnetic stimulation and recording the resulting motor evoked potentials (MEPs). We obtained consistent behavioural and MEP results suggesting that the presentation of a left- or right-side stimulus causes the activation of the ipsilateral response, which-in turn-inhibits the alternative response. Both processes are modulated by the spatial compatibility of the preceding trial. In trials following compatible trials (i.e. after conditions wherein the primed response was the correct one), we found response efficiency advantages and disadvantages of compatible and incompatible trials, respectively, which were mirrored by an increase of the excitability of the motor cortex primed by stimulus position and by a parallel decrease of the contralateral cortex excitability. Both the facilitation and interference components of the behavioural effect and the excitatory and inhibitory effects of the stimulus position on motor excitability were smaller after neutral trials (i.e. when the stimulus of the previous trial was aligned with fixation, thus not priming any response) and absent after incompatible trials (i.e. after having experienced a conflict between the primed and correct responses). These results are consistent with the idea that location-based response priming is under control of a conflict monitoring mechanism that strengthens ipsilateral response activation and contralateral response inhibition after compatible trials and weakens both processes after incompatible trials.

Role of stimulus and response feature overlap in between-task logical recoding.

The reversal logical recoding rule (i.e., "respond opposite") induced by an incompatible task (e.g., a task requiring to respond to red or green stimuli by pressing a key of the alternative colour compared to that of the stimulus) can be transferred to another task when the two tasks are combined in a task-switching paradigm. When the task to which the rule is transferred is a Simon task, this causes the disappearance of the typical advantage for responses that spatially correspond to the stimulus, or even results in an advantage for spatially noncorresponding responses. The present study aimed at investigating whether the transferred rule is independent of the specific stimulus and response dimensions for which it has been created. Previous studies suggest that when a Simon task is coupled with a colour incompatible task, the Simon effect may disappear or reverse even when stimuli in the two tasks, apart from being both visual and appearing on the same computer screen, have no other features in common. Results of the present study corroborate the hypothesis that feature overlap between stimuli is not necessary for the between-task transfer of the logical rule. However, an overlap between the representations of responses appears to be crucial. No modulation of the Simon effect was observed when the Simon task required bimanual responses while the colour-compatibility task required either vocal responses or responses executed with the two feet. In contrast, we did observe such a modulation when the discriminative response dimension and the effectors/response device were the same in the two tasks, even though these two tasks provided for different stimuli.

Cognitive advantage in bilingualism: an example of publication bias?

It is a widely held belief that bilinguals have an advantage over monolinguals in executive-control tasks, but is this what all studies actually demonstrate? The idea of a bilingual advantage may result from a publication bias favoring studies with positive results over studies with null or negative effects. To test this hypothesis, we looked at conference abstracts from 1999 to 2012 on the topic of bilingualism and executive control. We then determined which of the studies they reported were subsequently published. Studies with results fully supporting the bilingual-advantage theory were most likely to be published, followed by studies with mixed results. Studies challenging the bilingual advantage were published the least. This discrepancy was not due to differences in sample size, tests used, or statistical power. A test for funnel-plot asymmetry provided further evidence for the existence of a publication bias.

Spatial coding of object typical size: evidence for a SNARC-like effect.

The present study aimed to assess whether the representation of the typical size of objects can interact with response position codes in two-choice bimanual tasks, and give rise to a SNARC-like effect (faster responses when the representation of the typical size of the object to which the target stimulus refers corresponds to response side). Participants performed either a magnitude comparison task (in which they were required to judge whether the target was smaller or larger than a reference stimulus; Experiment 1) or a semantic decision task (in which they had to classify the target as belonging to either the category of living or non-living entities; Experiment 2). Target stimuli were pictures or written words referring to either typically large and small animals or inanimate objects. In both tasks, participants responded by pressing a left- or right-side button. Results showed that, regardless of the to-be-performed task (magnitude comparison or semantic decision) and stimulus format (picture or word), left responses were faster when the target represented typically small-sized entities, whereas right responses were faster for typically large-sized entities. These results provide evidence that the information about the typical size of objects is activated even if it is not requested by the task, and are consistent with the idea that objects' typical size is automatically spatially coded, as has been proposed to occur for number magnitudes. In this representation, small objects would be on the left and large objects would be on the right. Alternative interpretations of these results are also discussed.

Inside the kaleidoscope: unravelling the "feeling different" experience of bicultural bilinguals.

This article explores the phenomenon of "feeling different" experienced by bicultural bilingual individuals when they switch between their two different languages. Available data suggests that this experience is genuine and holds substantive value, not merely anecdotal. While on one hand, such a feeling may stem from the fact that the two languages were acquired at different times in individuals' lives (with all that entails in terms of efficiency and empowerment in using the two languages), on the other hand, it seems to entail deeper differences linked to the differential activation of cultural values, behavioral patterns, and expectations when the two languages are used. Its manifestations seem to be influenced by a variety of factors beyond just language choice, including the context in which this choice is performed. Results of studies investigating the experience of feeling different also suggest that it can lead to a sense of exclusion, isolation or marginalization within one's own community. However, this experience more often yields positive outcomes, with individuals perceiving it as enriching and contributing positively to both their personal development and the broader societal fabric. Amid contemporary challenges related to immigration, the study of biculturalism and related psychological phenomena, such as the "feeling different" experience, becomes imperative, as it may provide insights into how individuals navigate the complexities linked to their cultural identities.

Dissociation between awareness and spatial coding: evidence from unilateral neglect.

Prevalent theories about consciousness propose a causal relation between lack of spatial coding and absence of conscious experience: The failure to code the position of an object is assumed to prevent this object from entering consciousness. This is consistent with influential theories of unilateral neglect following brain damage, according to which spatial coding of neglected stimuli is defective, and this would keep their processing at the nonconscious level. Contrary to this view, we report evidence showing that spatial coding and consciousness can dissociate. A patient with left neglect, who was not aware of contralesional stimuli, was able to process their color and position. However, in contrast to (ipsilesional) consciously perceived stimuli, color and position of neglected stimuli were processed separately. We propose that individual object features, including position, can be processed without attention and consciousness and that conscious perception of an object depends on the binding of its features into an integrated percept.

The Role of Brief Global Cognitive Tests and Neuropsychological Expertise in the Detection and Differential Diagnosis of Dementia.

Dementia is a global public health problem and its impact is bound to increase in the next decades, with a rapidly aging world population. Dementia is by no means an obligatory outcome of aging, although its incidence increases exponentially in old age, and its onset may be insidious. In the absence of unequivocal biomarkers, the accuracy of cognitive profiling plays a fundamental role in the diagnosis of this condition. In this Perspective article, we highlight the utility of brief global cognitive tests in the diagnostic process, from the initial detection stage for which they are designed, through the differential diagnosis of dementia. We also argue that neuropsychological training and expertise are critical in order for the information gathered from these omnibus cognitive tests to be used in an efficient and effective way, and thus, ultimately, for them to fulfill their potential.

Developmental Dyslexia, Reading Acquisition, and Statistical Learning: A Sceptic's Guide.

Many theories have been put forward that propose that developmental dyslexia is caused by low-level neural, cognitive, or perceptual deficits. For example, statistical learning is a cognitive mechanism that allows the learner to detect a probabilistic pattern in a stream of stimuli and to generalise the knowledge of this pattern to similar stimuli. The link between statistical learning and reading ability is indirect, with intermediate skills, such as knowledge of frequently co-occurring letters, likely being causally dependent on statistical learning skills and, in turn, causing individual variation in reading ability. We discuss theoretical issues regarding what a link between statistical learning and reading ability actually means and review the evidence for such a deficit. We then describe and simulate the "noisy chain hypothesis", where each intermediary link between a proposed cause and the end-state of reading ability reduces the correlation coefficient between the low-level deficit and the end-state outcome of reading. We draw the following conclusions: (1) Empirically, there is evidence for a correlation between statistical learning ability and reading ability, but there is no evidence to suggest that this relationship is causal, (2) theoretically, focussing on a complete causal chain between a distal cause and developmental dyslexia, rather than the two endpoints of the distal cause and reading ability only, is necessary for understanding the underlying processes, (3) statistically, the indirect nature of the link between statistical learning and reading ability means that the magnitude of the correlation is diluted by other influencing variables, yielding most studies to date underpowered, and (4) practically, it is unclear what can be gained from invoking the concept of statistical learning in teaching children to read.

Spatial negative priming in bilingualism.

Balanced bilinguals have been shown to have an enhanced ability to inhibit distracting information. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that the bilinguals' efficiency in inhibitory control can be advantageous in some conditions, but disadvantageous in others-for example, negative priming conditions, in which previously irrelevant information becomes relevant. Data collected in a target-stimulus locating task from 29 early bilingual adults and 29 age-matched monolinguals showed that the bilinguals' greater inhibition of irrelevant spatial information (i.e., the position of a distractor stimulus) resulted in a smaller effect of the distractor presence (i.e., a smaller difference in error rates in trials with and without distractors) and a larger negative priming effect (i.e., a larger difference between the error rates shown in trials wherein the target position corresponded to the position of the previous-trial distractor and trials wherein the target was presented in a previously vacant position). These findings support the hypothesis of specific nonlinguistic cognitive effects of bilingualism on inhibitory control functions, which are not necessarily reflected in cognitive advantages.

Spatial asymmetries undermine also the short forms of the Judgement of Line Orientation test.

OBJECTIVE: The Judgment of Line Orientation (JLO) test is one of the most used tasks for the assessment of visuospatial perception. However, JLO items show a left-right structural asymmetry that interacts with the ipsilesional attentional biases of brain-damaged patients, that is, the main target population for which the test is intended, and undermines the test's validity. Left hemisphere-damaged patients are favored by the way the stimulus lines are distributed in the original items, whereas right hemisphere-damaged patients are favored by the opposite distribution, obtained by mirror reversing the items (Treccani, Torri, & Cubelli, 2005). Here we aimed to analyze the short forms of JLO available in the literature, which are often presented as preferable alternatives to the full form. METHOD: Characteristics of the items of these short forms were scrutinized. By reanalyzing data from Treccani et al. (2005), we also investigated the impact of these characteristics on brain-damaged patients' performance. RESULTS: Seven of the 8 analyzed short forms proved to be even more asymmetric than the full form (e.g., they have a different number of left and right lines), whereas the remaining one, which uses a flexible item-selection criterion, leads to unpredictable results. Like in the full form, these asymmetries affect brain-damaged patients' performance. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of spatial asymmetries in JLO items cannot be neglected anymore in the development of any JLO form, given their impact on performance and the resulting detrimental effect on the accuracy and validity of the measurement. We propose to select 5-10 items among those of the original set and present them together with their mirror images to obtain a left-right balanced JLO short version. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Does Perceptual Simulation Explain Spatial Effects in Word Categorization?

In three experiments we investigated the origin of the effects of the compatibility between the typical location of entities denoted by written words (e.g., "up" for eagle and "down" for carpet) and either the actual position of the words on the screen (e.g., upper vs. lower part of the screen), or the response position (e.g., upper- vs. lower- key presses) in binary categorization tasks. Contrary to predictions of the perceptual simulation account (Barsalou, 1999), conceptual spatial compatibility effects observed in the present study (faster RTs when the typical position of the stimulus referent in the real word was compatible with either the stimulus or response physical position) seem to be independent of whether there was an overlap between simulated processes possibly triggered by the presented stimulus and sensory-motor processes actually required by the task. Rather, they appear to depend critically on whether the involved stimulus and/or response dimensions had binary, variable (vs. fixed) values. Notably, no stimulus-stimulus compatibility effect was observed in Experiment 3, when the stimulus physical position was presented in a blocked design (i.e., it was kept constant within each block of trials). In contrast, in all three experiments, a compatibility effect between response position and another (non-spatial) conceptual dimension of the stimulus (i.e., its semantic category) was observed (i.e., an effect analogous to the MARC [linguistic markedness of response codes] effect, which is usually observed in the number domain; Nuerk et al., 2004). This pattern of results is fully accounted for by the polarity principle, according to which these effects originate from the alignment of the polarities of either different stimulus dimensions or stimulus and response dimensions.

Spatial coding of word-initial letters: evidence from a Simon-like task.

In this study, we investigated whether the processing of written words leads to a preferential coding of word beginnings and whether this coding occurs in the context of word representations that are spatial in nature and depend on the orientation of the actual stimuli. Two experiments were carried out wherein participants were asked to press a left or right key, in accordance with a nonspatial feature of standard-oriented or mirror-reversed wordlike stimuli (words and pronounceable nonwords). Both experiments showed an effect of correspondence between position of the beginning part of the stimuli and position of the required response (i.e., a Simon-like effect): Responses to standard-oriented stimuli were faster with the left key, whereas responses to mirror-reversed stimuli were faster with the right key. The present findings indicate for the first time that, in reading, the direction of script is automatically processed and the position of the word beginning is coded before the orthographic lexicon is accessed.

Simon effect with and without awareness of the accessory stimulus.

The authors investigated whether a Simon effect could be observed in an accessory-stimulus Simon task when participants were unaware of the task-irrelevant accessory cue. In Experiment 1A a central visual target was accompanied by a suprathreshold visual lateral cue. A regular Simon effect (i.e., faster cue-response corresponding reaction times [RTs]) was found. Experiment 1B demonstrated that this effect cannot be attributed to perceptual grouping of the target and cue. Experiments 2A, 2B, and 2C showed a reverse Simon effect (i.e., faster noncorresponding RTs) when participants were not aware of the cue. In this condition, the Simon effect would occur relative to the reorientation of attention from the cue, which would initially capture attention, toward the target. This conclusion is supported by the results of Experiments 3A and 3B, in which the reorientation of attention was induced by having the target flash after its onset. With suprathreshold cues either a reverse or regular Simon effect was observed by using a 100-ms or > or = 200-ms onset flashing interval, respectively, whereas with subthreshold cues a reverse Simon effect was found irrespective of the interval length.

Is judgement of line orientation selectively impaired in right brain damaged patients?

The judgement of line orientation test (JLOT) is widely used to assess visuo-spatial processing. Most neuropsychological studies have shown that on this task right hemisphere damaged (RHD) patients are significantly more impaired than left hemisphere damaged (LHD) patients, suggesting a dominant role of the right hemisphere in discriminating line orientation. To investigate whether other factors can affect performance on JLOT, a modified version of the test, consisting of the 30 original test items and their mirror images, was employed. In Experiment 1 normal participants were more accurate in discriminating the left lines of the original items, and the right lines of the mirror-reversed items, thus indicating that in original JLOT the stimulus arrays comprise lines on the left side that are easier to judge than lines on the right. In Experiment 2, RHD patients with visual neglect were significantly more impaired than patients without neglect, who performed similarly independently from the side of the lesion. Among patients without neglect, however, LHD patients were more accurate than RHD patients without neglect with the original items, but produced more errors than RHD patients without neglect when faced with the mirror-reversed items. Overall, the results of the present study suggest that the greater impairment on standard JLOT shown by RHD patients has to be interpreted as the by-product of the presence of visual neglect, which is more frequent following right hemisphere damage, and of the uneven distribution of the stimulus lines, which are easier to discriminate in the left space. The clinical and theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

Distinguishing Target From Distractor in Stroop, Picture-Word, and Word-Word Interference Tasks.

Lexical selection-both during reading aloud and speech production-involves selecting an intended word, while ignoring irrelevant lexical activation. This process has been studied by the use of interference tasks. Examples are the Stroop task, where participants ignore the written color word and name the color of the ink, picture-word interference tasks, where participants name a picture while ignoring a super-imposed written word, or word-word interference (WWI) tasks, where two words are presented and the participants need to respond to only one, based on an pre-determined visual feature (e.g., color, position). Here, we focus on the WWI task: it is theoretically impossible for existing models to explain how the cognitive system can respond to one stimulus and block the other, when they are presented by the same modality (i.e., they are both words). We describe a solution that can explain performance on the WWI task: drawing on the literature on visual attention, we propose that the system creates an object file for each perceived object, which is continuously updated with increasingly complete information about the stimulus, such as the task-relevant visual feature. Such a model can account for performance on all three tasks.

The role of the sound of objects in object identification: evidence from picture naming.

In the present work we were concerned with the role of sound representations in object recognition. In order to address this issue we made use of a picture naming task in which target pictures might be accompanied by a white-noise burst. White-noise was thought to interfere with the representation of the sound possibly associated with the depicted object. We reasoned that if such a representation is critical for the recognition of objects strongly associated with certain sounds, white-noise interference should affect the naming of pictures representing objects with typical sounds leaving the naming of object without typical sounds unaffected. The results were congruent with the predictions and consistent with a view of the semantic representations of objects as collection of related representations, modal in nature, and mandatorily accessed.