Invasive Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Lineage Biofilm Formation and Gallbladder Colonization Vary But Do Not Correlate Directly with Known Biofilm-Related Mutations.

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) serovars have a broad host range and cause gastroenteritis in humans. However, invasive NTS (iNTS) bloodstream infections have increased in the last decade, causing 60,000 deaths annually. Human-specific typhoidal Salmonella colonizes and forms biofilms on gallstones, resulting in chronic, asymptomatic infection. iNTS lineages are undergoing genomic reduction and may have adapted to person-to-person transmission via mutations in virulence, bile resistance, and biofilm formation. As such, we sought to determine the capacity of iNTS lineages for biofilm formation and the development of chronic infections in the gallbladder in our mouse model. Of the lineages tested (L1, L2, L3 and UK), only L2 and UK were defective for the rough, dry and red (RDAR) morphotype, correlating with the known bcsG (cellulose) mutation but not with csgD (curli) gene mutations. Biofilm-forming ability was assessed in vitro, which revealed a biofilm formation hierarchy of L3 > ST19 > UK > L1 = L2, which did not correlate directly with either the bcsG or the csgD mutation. By confocal microscopy, biofilms of L2 and UK had significantly less curli and cellulose, while L1 biofilms had significantly lower cellulose. All iNTS strains were able to colonize the mouse gallbladder, liver, and spleen in a similar manner, while L3 had a significantly higher bacterial load in the gallbladder and increased lethality. While there was iNTS lineage variability in biofilm formation, gallbladder colonization, and virulence in a chronic mouse model, all tested lineages were capable of colonization despite possessing biofilm-related mutations. Thus, iNTS strains may be unrecognized chronic pathogens in endemic settings.

Salmonella Extracellular Matrix Components Influence Biofilm Formation and Gallbladder Colonization.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, the causative agent of typhoid fever in humans, forms biofilms encapsulated by an extracellular matrix (ECM). Biofilms facilitate colonization and persistent infection in gallbladders of humans and mouse models of chronic carriage. Individual roles of matrix components have not been completely elucidated in vitro or in vivo To examine individual functions, strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, the murine model of S Typhi, in which various ECM genes were deleted or added, were created to examine biofilm formation, colonization, and persistence in the gallbladder. Studies show that curli contributes most significantly to biofilm formation. Expression of Vi antigen decreased biofilm formation in vitro and virulence and bacterial survival in vivo without altering the examined gallbladder pro- or anti-inflammatory cytokines. Oppositely, loss of all ECM components (ΔwcaM ΔcsgA ΔyihO ΔbcsE) increased virulence and bacterial survival in vivo and reduced gallbladder interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels. Colanic acid and curli mutants had the largest defects in biofilm-forming ability and contributed most significantly to the virulence increase of the ΔwcaM ΔcsgA ΔyihO ΔbcsE mutant strain. While the ΔwcaM ΔcsgA ΔyihO ΔbcsE mutant was not altered in resistance to complement or growth in macrophages, it attached and invaded macrophages better than the wild-type (WT) strain. These data suggest that ECM components have various levels of importance in biofilm formation and gallbladder colonization and that the ECM diminishes disseminated disease in our model, perhaps by reducing cell attachment/invasion and dampening inflammation by maintaining/inducing IL-10 production. Understanding how ECM components aid acute disease and persistence could lead to improvements in therapeutic treatment of typhoid fever patients.

UPC2 is universally essential for azole antifungal resistance in Candida albicans.

In Candida albicans, the transcription factor Upc2 is central to the regulation of ergosterol biosynthesis. UPC2-activating mutations contribute to azole resistance, whereas disruption increases azole susceptibility. In the present study, we investigated the relationship of UPC2 to fluconazole susceptibility, particularly in azole-resistant strains. In addition to the reduced fluconazole MIC previously observed with UPC2 disruption, we observed a lower minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) for a upc2Δ/Δ mutant than for its azole-susceptible parent, SC5314. Moreover, the upc2Δ/Δ mutant was unable to grow on a solid medium containing 10 µg/ml fluconazole and exhibited increased susceptibility and a clear zone of inhibition by Etest. Time-kill analysis showed higher fungistatic activity against the upc2Δ/Δ mutant than against SC5314. UPC2 disruption in strains carrying specific resistance mutations also resulted in reduced MICs and MFCs. UPC2 disruption in a highly azole resistant clinical isolate containing multiple resistance mechanisms likewise resulted in a reduced MIC and MFC. This mutant was unable to grow on a solid medium containing 10 µg/ml fluconazole and exhibited increased susceptibility and a clear zone of inhibition by Etest. Time-kill analysis showed increased fungistatic activity against the upc2Δ/Δ mutant in the resistant background. Microarray analysis showed attenuated induction by fluconazole of genes involved in sterol biosynthesis, iron transport, or iron homeostasis in the absence of UPC2. Taken together, these data demonstrate that the UPC2 transcriptional network is universally essential for azole resistance in C. albicans and represents an attractive target for enhancing azole antifungal activity.

Disruption of the transcriptional regulator Cas5 results in enhanced killing of Candida albicans by Fluconazole.

Azole antifungal agents such as fluconazole exhibit fungistatic activity against Candida albicans. Strategies to enhance azole antifungal activity would be therapeutically appealing. In an effort to identify transcriptional pathways that influence the killing activity of fluconazole, we sought to identify transcription factors (TFs) involved in this process. From a collection of C. albicans strains disrupted for genes encoding TFs (O. R. Homann, J. Dea, S. M. Noble, and A. D. Johnson, PLoS Genet. 5:e1000783, 2009, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000783), four strains exhibited marked reductions in minimum fungicidal concentration (MFCs) in both RPMI and yeast extract-peptone-dextrose (YPD) media. One of these genes, UPC2, was previously characterized with regard to its role in azole susceptibility. Of mutants representing the three remaining TF genes of interest, one (CAS5) was unable to recover from fluconazole exposure at concentrations as low as 2 µg/ml after 72 h in YPD medium. This mutant also showed reduced susceptibility and a clear zone of inhibition by Etest, was unable to grow on solid medium containing 10 µg/ml fluconazole, and exhibited increased susceptibility by time-kill analysis. CAS5 disruption in highly azole-resistant clinical isolates exhibiting multiple resistance mechanisms did not alter susceptibility. However, CAS5 disruption in strains with specific resistance mutations resulted in moderate reductions in MICs and MFCs. Genome-wide transcriptional analysis was performed in the presence of fluconazole and was consistent with the suggested role of CAS5 in cell wall organization while also suggesting a role in iron transport and homeostasis. These findings suggest that Cas5 regulates a transcriptional network that influences the response of C. albicans to fluconazole. Further delineation of this transcriptional network may identify targets for potential cotherapeutic strategies to enhance the activity of the azole class of antifungals.

L-Arabinose Transport and Metabolism in Salmonella Influences Biofilm Formation.

L-arabinose inducible promoters are commonly used in gene expression analysis. However, nutrient source and availability also play a role in biofilm formation; therefore, L-arabinose metabolism could impact biofilm development. In this study we examined the impact of L-arabinose on Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) biofilm formation. Using mutants impaired for the transport and metabolism of L-arabinose, we showed that L-arabinose metabolism negatively impacts S. Typhimurium biofilm formation in vitro. When L-arabinose metabolism is abrogated, biofilm formation returned to baseline levels. However, without the ability to import extracellular L-arabinose, biofilm formation significantly increased. Using RNA-Seq we identified several gene families involved in these different phenotypes including curli expression, amino acid synthesis, and L-arabinose metabolism. Several individual candidate genes were tested for their involvement in the L-arabinose-mediated biofilm phenotypes, but most played no significant role. Interestingly, in the presence of L-arabinose the diguanylate cyclase gene adrA was downregulated in wild type S. Typhimurium. Meanwhile cyaA, encoding an adenylate cyclase, was downregulated in an L-arabinose transport mutant. Using an IPTG-inducible plasmid to deplete c-di-GMP via vieA expression, we were able to abolish the increased biofilm phenotype seen in the transport mutant. However, the mechanism by which the L-arabinose import mutant forms significantly larger biofilms remains to be determined. Regardless, these data suggest that L-arabinose metabolism influences intracellular c-di-GMP levels and therefore biofilm formation. These findings are important when considering the use of an L-arabinose inducible promoter in biofilm conditions.

Salmonella Biofilm Formation, Chronic Infection, and Immunity Within the Intestine and Hepatobiliary Tract.

Within the species of Salmonella enterica, there is significant diversity represented among the numerous subspecies and serovars. Collectively, these account for microbes with variable host ranges, from common plant and animal colonizers to extremely pathogenic and human-specific serovars. Despite these differences, many Salmonella species find commonality in the ability to form biofilms and the ability to cause acute, latent, or chronic disease. The exact outcome of infection depends on many factors such as the growth state of Salmonella, the environmental conditions encountered at the time of infection, as well as the infected host and immune response elicited. Here, we review the numerous biofilm lifestyles of Salmonella (on biotic and abiotic surfaces) and how the production of extracellular polymeric substances not only enhances long-term persistence outside the host but also is an essential function in chronic human infections. Furthermore, careful consideration is made for the events during initial infection that allow for gut transcytosis which, in conjunction with host immune functions, often determine the progression of disease. Both typhoidal and non-typhoidal salmonellae can cause chronic and/or secondary infections, thus the adaptive immune responses to both types of bacteria are discussed with particular attention to the differences between Salmonella Typhi, Salmonella Typhimurium, and invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella that can result in differential immune responses. Finally, while strides have been made in our understanding of immunity to Salmonella in the lymphoid organs, fewer definitive studies exist for intestinal and hepatobiliary immunity. By examining our current knowledge and what remains to be determined, we provide insight into new directions in the field of Salmonella immunity, particularly as it relates to chronic infection.