Impact of storm runoff on Salmonella and Escherichia coli prevalence in irrigation ponds of fresh produce farms in southern Georgia.

AIMS: To examine Salmonella and Escherichia coli in storm runoff and irrigation ponds used by fresh produce growers, and compare Salmonella serovars with those found in cases of human salmonellosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: We collected water before and after rain events at two irrigation ponds on farms in southern Georgia, USA, and collected storm runoff/storm flow within the contributing watershed of each pond. Salmonella and E. coli concentrations were higher in ponds after rain events by an average of 0·46 (P < 0·01) and 0·61 (P < 0·05) log10 most probable number (MPN) per 100 ml respectively. Salmonella concentrations in storm runoff from fields and forests were not significantly higher than in ponds before rain events, but concentrations in storm flow from streams and ditches were higher by an average of 1·22 log10 MPN per 100 ml (P < 0·001). Eighteen Salmonella serovars were identified from 155 serotyped isolates, and eight serovars were shared between storm runoff/storm flow and ponds. Seven of the serovars, including five of the shared serovars, were present in cases of human illness in the study region in the same year. However, several serovars most commonly associated with human illness in the study region (e.g. Javiana, Enteritidis, and Montevideo) were not found in any water samples. CONCLUSIONS: Salmonella and E. coli concentrations in irrigation ponds were higher, on average, after rain events, but concentrations of Salmonella were low, and the ponds met FDA water quality standards based on E. coli. Some similarities and notable differences were found between Salmonella serovars in water samples and in cases of human illness. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study directly examined storm runoff/storm flow into irrigation ponds and quantified increases in Salmonella and E. coli following rain events, with potential implications for irrigation pond management as well as human health.

Geostatistical modeling of the spatial variability and risk areas of southern root-knot nematodes in relation to soil properties.

Identifying the spatial variability and risk areas for southern root-knot nematode [Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood] (RKN) is key for site-specific management (SSM) of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) fields. The objectives of this study were to: (i) determine the soil properties that influence RKN occurrence at different scales; and (ii) delineate risk areas of RKN by indicator kriging. The study site was a cotton field located in the southeastern coastal plain region of the USA. Nested semivariograms indicated that RKN samples, collected from a 50×50 m grid, exhibited a local and regional scale of variation describing small and large clusters of RKN population density. Factorial kriging decomposed RKN and soil properties variability into different spatial components. Scale dependent correlations between RKN data showed that the areas with high RKN population remained stable though the growing season. RKN data were strongly correlated with slope (SL) at local scale and with apparent soil electrical conductivity deep (EC(a-d)) at both local and regional scales, which illustrate the potential of these soil physical properties as surrogate data for RKN population. The correlation between RKN data and soil chemical properties was soil texture mediated. Indicator kriging (IK) maps developed using either RKN, the relation between RKN and soil electrical conductivity or a combination of both, depicted the probability for RKN population to exceed the threshold of 100 second stage juveniles/100 cm(3) of soil. Incorporating EC(a-d) as soft data improved predictions favoring the reduction of the number of RKN observations required to map areas at risk for high RKN population.

Nutrient transport in a restored riparian wetland.

We determined the water quality effect of a restored forested riparian wetland adjacent to a manure application area and a heavily fertilized pasture in the Georgia Coastal Plain. The buffer system was managed based on USDA recommendations and averaged 38 m in width. Water quality and hydrology data were collected from 1991-1999. A nitrate plume in shallow ground water with concentrations exceeding 10 mg NO3-N L(-1) moved into the restored forested riparian wetland. Along most of the plume front, concentrations were less than 4 mg NO3-N L(-1) within 25 m. Two preferential flow paths associated with past hydrologic modifications to the site allowed the nitrate plume to progress further into the restored forested riparian wetland. Surface runoff total N, dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), and total P concentrations averaged 8.63 mg N L(-1), 1.37 mg P L(-1), and 1.48 mg P L(-1), respectively, at the field edge and were reduced to 4.18 mg N L(-1), 0.31 mg P L(-1), and 0.36 mg P L(-1), respectively, at the restored forested riparian wetland outlet. Water and nutrient mass balance showed that retention and removal rates for nitrogen species ranged from a high of 78% for nitrate to a low of 52% for ammonium. Retention rates for both DRP and total P were 66%. Most of the N retention and removal was accounted for by denitrification. Mean annual concentrations of total N and total P leaving the restored forested riparian wetland were 1.98 mg N L(-1) and 0.24 mg P L(-1), respectively.

Managing manure nutrients through multi-crop forage production.

Concentrated sources of dairy manure represent significant water pollution potential. The southern United States may be more vulnerable to water quality problems than some other regions because of climate, typical farm size, and cropping practices. Dairy manure can be an effective source of plant nutrients and large quantities of nutrients can be recycled through forage production, especially when multi-cropping systems are utilized. Linking forage production with manure utilization is an environmentally sound approach for addressing both of these problems. Review of two triple-crop systems revealed greater N and P recoveries for a corn silage-bermudagrass hay-rye haylage system, whereas forage yields and quality were greater for a corn silage-corn silage-rye haylage system, when manure was applied at rates to supply N. Nutrient uptake was lower than application during the autumn-winter period, and bermudagrass utilized more of the remaining excess than a second crop of corn silage. Economic comparison of these systems suggests that the added value of the two corn silage crop system was not enough to off-set its increased production cost. Therefore, the system that included bermudagrass demonstrated both environmental and economic advantages. Review of the N and P uptake and calculated crop value of various single, double, and triple crop forage systems indicated that the per hectare economic value as well as the N and P uptakes tended to follow DM yields, and grasses tended to out-perform broadleaf forages. Taken across all systems, systems that included bermudagrass tended to have some of the highest economic values and uptakes of N and P. Manure applied at rates to supply N results in application of excess P, and production will not supply adequate quantities of forage to meet the herd's needs. Systems that lower manure application and supply supplemental N to produce all necessary forage under manure application will likely be less economically attractive due to additional costs of moving manure further and, applying it to greater land areas, but will be environmentally necessary in most cases. Intensive forage systems can produce acceptable to high quality forage, protect the environment, and be economically attractive. The optimal manure-forage system will depend on the farm characteristics and specific local conditions. Buffers and nutrient sinks can protect streams and water bodies from migrating nutrients and should be included as a part of crop production systems.