RESUMO
Plants trigger immune responses upon recognition of fungal cell wall chitin, followed by the release of various antimicrobials, including chitinase enzymes that hydrolyze chitin. In turn, many fungal pathogens secrete LysM effectors that prevent chitin recognition by the host through scavenging of chitin oligomers. We previously showed that intrachain LysM dimerization of the Cladosporium fulvum effector Ecp6 confers an ultrahigh-affinity binding groove that competitively sequesters chitin oligomers from host immune receptors. Additionally, particular LysM effectors are found to protect fungal hyphae against chitinase hydrolysis during host colonization. However, the molecular basis for the protection of fungal cell walls against hydrolysis remained unclear. Here, we determined a crystal structure of the single LysM domain-containing effector Mg1LysM of the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici and reveal that Mg1LysM is involved in the formation of two kinds of dimers; a chitin-dependent dimer as well as a chitin-independent homodimer. In this manner, Mg1LysM gains the capacity to form a supramolecular structure by chitin-induced oligomerization of chitin-independent Mg1LysM homodimers, a property that confers protection to fungal cell walls against host chitinases.
Assuntos
Ascomicetos/química , Quitina/química , Proteínas Fúngicas/química , Hifas/química , Multimerização Proteica , Ascomicetos/genética , Ascomicetos/metabolismo , Quitina/genética , Quitina/metabolismo , Cladosporium/química , Cladosporium/genética , Proteínas Fúngicas/genética , Proteínas Fúngicas/metabolismo , Hifas/genética , Hifas/metabolismo , Doenças das Plantas/genética , Doenças das Plantas/microbiologia , Estrutura Quaternária de Proteína , Triticum/genética , Triticum/metabolismo , Triticum/microbiologiaRESUMO
The appropriate timing of flowering is crucial for plant reproductive success. It is therefore not surprising that intricate genetic networks have evolved to perceive and integrate both endogenous and environmental signals, such as carbohydrate and hormonal status, photoperiod and temperature. In contrast to our detailed understanding of the vernalization pathway, little is known about how flowering time is controlled in response to changes in the ambient growth temperature. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the MADS-box transcription factor genes FLOWERING LOCUS M (FLM) and SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) have key roles in this process. FLM is subject to temperature-dependent alternative splicing. Here we report that the two main FLM protein splice variants, FLM-ß and FLM-δ, compete for interaction with the floral repressor SVP. The SVP-FLM-ß complex is predominately formed at low temperatures and prevents precocious flowering. By contrast, the competing SVP-FLM-δ complex is impaired in DNA binding and acts as a dominant-negative activator of flowering at higher temperatures. Our results show a new mechanism that controls the timing of the floral transition in response to changes in ambient temperature. A better understanding of how temperature controls the molecular mechanisms of flowering will be important to cope with current changes in global climate.
Assuntos
Processamento Alternativo/genética , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/fisiologia , Flores/fisiologia , Proteínas de Domínio MADS/metabolismo , Isoformas de Proteínas/metabolismo , Temperatura , Arabidopsis/genética , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/química , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/química , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Flores/genética , Regulação da Expressão Gênica de Plantas , Proteínas de Domínio MADS/química , Proteínas de Domínio MADS/genética , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas , Ligação Proteica , Isoformas de Proteínas/química , Isoformas de Proteínas/genética , Fatores de Tempo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismoAssuntos
Marcação por Isótopo , Biossíntese de Proteínas , Arabidopsis , Íons , Peptídeos , Polirribossomos , ProteínasAssuntos
Arabidopsis , Cotilédone , Arabidopsis/genética , Folhas de Planta , Transcriptoma/genéticaRESUMO
Unlike most transcription factors (TF), pioneer TFs have a specialized role in binding closed regions of chromatin and initiating the subsequent opening of these regions. Thus, pioneer TFs are key factors in gene regulation with critical roles in developmental transitions, including organ biogenesis, tissue development, and cellular differentiation. These developmental events involve some major reprogramming of gene expression patterns, specifically the opening and closing of distinct chromatin regions. Here, we discuss how pioneer TFs are identified using biochemical and genome-wide techniques. What is known about pioneer TFs from animals and plants is reviewed, with a focus on the strategies used by pioneer factors in different organisms. Finally, the different molecular mechanisms pioneer factors used are discussed, highlighting the roles that tertiary and quaternary structures play in nucleosome-compatible DNA-binding.