Intra- and Extra-articular Features of Temporomandibular Joint Ankylosis in the Cat (Felis catus).

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) ankylosis is an uncommon clinical entity in human and veterinary medicine. However, the condition is severely debilitating and is life-limiting if not treated. This study sought to characterize the intra- and extra-articular features of naturally occurring TMJ ankylosis in cats. TMJs from client-owned cats (n = 5) that underwent bilateral TMJ gap arthroplasty were examined and compared with TMJs from healthy, age-matched feline cadavers (n = 2) by cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT), micro-computed tomography (µCT) and histologically. Features of bilateral intra- and extra-articular ankylosis compounded by degenerative joint lesions were identified radiographically and histologically in all affected cats. Features of TMJ 'true' ankylosis included variable intracapsular fibro-osseous bridging, degeneration of the disc and the articular surfaces, narrowing of the joint space and flattening of the condylar process of the mandible. Extra-articular features of TMJ ankylosis included periarticular bone formation and fibro-osseous bridging between the mandible, zygomatic arch and coronoid process. In addition, subchondral bone loss or sclerosis, irregular and altered joint contours and irregularly increased density of the medullary bone characterized the degenerative changes of the osseous components of the TMJ. Complex radiological and histological features of both ankylosis and pseudoankylosis were identified that clinically manifested in complete inability to open the mouth.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis).

Skull specimens from 836 kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria; 559 specimens were included in this study. The study group consisted of 248 (44.4%) females, 267 (47.8%) males and 44 (7.9%) specimens of unknown sex; 128 (22.9%) skulls were from young adults and 431 (77.1%) were from adults. Of the 23,478 possible teeth, 21,883 teeth (93.2%) were present for examination, 45 (1.9%) were absent congenitally, 405 (1.7%) were acquired losses and 1,145 (4.9%) were missing artefactually. No persistent deciduous teeth were observed. Eight (0.04%) supernumerary teeth were found in seven (1.3%) specimens and 13 (0.06%) teeth from 12 (2.1%) specimens were malformed. Root number variation was present in 20.3% (403/1,984) of the present maxillary and mandibular first premolar teeth. Eleven (2.0%) foxes had lesions consistent with enamel hypoplasia and 77 (13.8%) had fenestrations in the maxillary alveolar bone. Periodontitis and attrition/abrasion affected the majority of foxes (71.6% and 90.5%, respectively). Nine-hundred and fifty-eight (4.4%) teeth were fractured, a large proportion (41.8%) of which were characterized as complicated crown fractures. Sixty-six periapical lesions from 52 (9.3%) skulls were found. A considerable portion of foxes (5.9%) showed evidence of low-grade temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. Overall, kit foxes share dental pathology similar to that of the grey fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus).

Dental Pathology of the Grey Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus).

Museum specimens from 637 grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. Of the 637 specimens, 569 were included for further examination. The study population included more males (n = 261, 45.9%) than females (n = 196, 34.4%) and animals of unknown sex (n = 112, 19.7%). Additionally, 481 (84.5%) adults, 67 (11.8%) young adults and 21 (3.7%) individuals of unknown age comprised the study population, with juveniles and neonates excluded. The number of teeth present for examination was 23,066 (96.5%) with 624 (2.6%) absent artefactually, 15 (0.06%) absent congenitally and 193 (0.8%) lost ante mortem through acquired tooth loss. No persistent deciduous teeth or temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis were found in any of the specimens. Ten supernumerary teeth from nine (1.6%) specimens were encountered. Teeth with extra roots were found in 61 individuals (10.7%), with 0.4% of all teeth affected. Of the alveoli examined, 1,529 (6.4%) displayed bony changes suggestive of periodontitis, with 276 (48.7%) of individuals affected. Significantly more adults were affected by bony changes associated with stage 3 periodontitis than young adults. All specimens displaying stage 4 periodontitis were adults. Fractures affected 446 (78.4%) of the specimens examined and 3,554 (15.4%) of teeth present. Almost half (n = 10,856, 47.1%) of the teeth available for examination and most specimens (n = 487, 85.6%) displayed some degree of attrition or abrasion. Two individuals (0.4%) exhibited periapical lesions. Traumatic skull injuries affected 56 (9.8%) specimens. Characterizing the dental pathology in the grey fox provides key insight into the ecology of the species and factors contributing to fitness.

Craniomaxillofacial Disorders and Solutions in Humans and Animals.

Cross-disciplinary collaborations have initiated translational studies in an effort to harness naturally occurring diseases in companion animals to accelerate the development of new treatment modalities, drugs, and device inventions. These synergistic collaborations can identify clinically relevant models that offer the opportunity to conduct rigorous translational investigations. However, the relationship between craniomaxillofacial diseases in companion animals and humans has been widely overlooked. We report here an innovative and visionary 2-d symposium that was organized to gather professionals working on craniomaxillofacial disorders and solutions in humans and/or animals from multiple disciplines, including veterinary physicians, basic scientists, biomedical engineers, physicians, and dentists. The symposium provided a platform for junior and senior investigators and basic science and clinical researchers to network, collaborate, and develop a new clinical and translational framework for accelerated therapy development.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Grey Wolf (Canis lupus).

Skulls from 392 grey wolves (Canis lupus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. Two hundred and seven skulls were included in this study, comprised of 124 young adults (59.9%) and 83 adults (40.1%); of these, 65 (31.4%) specimens were from male wolves and 104 (50.3%) were from females, with 38 (18.4%) of unknown sex. Out of 8,694 possible teeth, 8,339 (95.9%) were present for evaluation. Fifty-five teeth (15.5%) were absent congenitally, 30 (8.5%) were lost during life and 270 (76.1%) were lost artefactually post mortem. Skeletal or dental malocclusion was present in 37 specimens (17.9%), with level bite being the most commonly encountered malocclusion. Enamel hypoplasia was present in five skulls (2.4%), affecting eight teeth (0.1%) in total. An abnormal number of roots was found on 23 teeth (0.3%) on 13 skulls (6.3%). Persistent deciduous teeth occurred in two (1.0%) specimens, affecting one (0.01%) tooth each. Fenestration or dehiscence was found associated with 203 teeth (2.4%) in 72 skulls (34.8%). Periodontitis was noted on 115 skulls (55.6%) and 1,000 teeth (11.5%), affecting significantly more adults (n = 63, 75.0%) than young adults (n = 52, 41.9%; P <0.0001). One hundred and sixty-one skulls (77.8%) showed signs of endodontal disease, including attrition or abrasion on 144 skulls (69.6%) and 2,522 teeth (30.2%) and 424 fractured teeth (5.1%) on 103 skulls (49.8%). Both lesions affected significantly more adults than young adults. Overt periapical disease was associated with six teeth (0.1%) distributed across five skulls (2.4%). A carious lesion was present on one tooth (0.01%) of one specimen (0.5%). Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) osteoarthritis were found in 24 specimens (11.6%), affecting 38 joints (9.2%). Trauma to the skull, such as bite marks, bullet holes or blunt trauma, was noted in 44 skulls (21.2%). The grey wolf and the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) share common dental diseases; however, the proportion and severity may vary. Although the clinical significance of dental and TMJ pathology in the grey wolf remains unknown, based on the impact of these disorders on the domestic dog, the occurrence and severity of these lesions are likely to play an important role in the morbidity and mortality of this wild canid species.

The Temporomandibular Joint of the Domestic Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) in Health and Disease.

This study aimed to characterize the histological, biomechanical and biochemical properties of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of the domestic dog in health and disease. In addition, we sought to identify structure-function relationships and to characterize TMJ degenerative lesions that may be found naturally in this species. TMJs (n = 20) from fresh cadaver heads (n = 10) of domestic dogs were examined macroscopically and microscopically and by cone-beam computed tomography. The TMJ discs were evaluated for their mechanical and biochemical properties. If TMJ arthritic changes were found, pathological characteristics were described and compared with healthy joints. Five (50%) dogs demonstrated macroscopically normal fibrocartilaginous articular surfaces and fibrous discs and five (50%) dogs exhibited degenerative changes that were observed either in the articular surfaces or the discs. In the articulating surfaces, these changes included erosions, conformational changes and osteophytes. In the discs, degenerative changes were represented by full-thickness perforations. Histologically, pathological specimens demonstrated fibrillations with or without erosions, subchondral bone defects and subchondral bone sclerosis. Significant anisotropy in the TMJ discs was evident on histology and tensile mechanical testing. Specifically, the discs were significantly stiffer and stronger in the rostrocaudal direction compared with the mediolateral direction. No significant differences were detected in compressive properties of different disc regions. Biochemical analyses showed high collagen content and low glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content. No significant differences in biochemical composition, apart from GAG, were detected among the disc regions. GAG concentration was significantly higher in the central region as compared with the caudal (posterior) region. The TMJ of the domestic dog exhibits similarities, but also differences, compared with other mammals with regards to structure-function relationships. The TMJ articular surfaces and the disc exhibit degenerative changes as seen in other species, including perforation of the disc as seen in man. The degenerative changes had greater effects on the mechanical properties compared with the biochemical properties of the TMJ components. Translational motion of the TMJ does occur in dogs, but is limited.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the California Mountain Lion (Puma concolor couguar).

Skulls from 91 California mountain lions (Puma concolor couguar) were examined macroscopically and radiographically. The majority of the skulls were from young adult animals (57.1%). The skull specimens were from 42 male (46.1%) and 34 female (37.4%) animals, while the gender was unknown for the remainder. The majority (94.5%) of teeth were present for examination. Only 11 teeth were identified as absent congenitally; five of these teeth were maxillary first molar teeth and three were maxillary second premolar teeth. Abnormal tooth morphology was identified in 3.5% of teeth. The most common abnormality in tooth form was abnormally large crowns of the maxillary first molar teeth. Teeth with an abnormal number of roots were uncommon (n = 21). Ninety-one teeth were found to have an abnormal number of roots, most often two-rooted maxillary first molar teeth instead of the expected one root. The most prevalent dental lesions found in the California mountain lion were attrition/abrasion (93.4%), tooth fractures (80.2%) and periodontitis (38.5%). Less common dental lesions were tooth resorption (n = 32 teeth) and endodontal disease (n = 29 teeth).

Dental Pathology of the Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata), Groundhog (Marmota monax) and Alaska Marmot (Marmota broweri).

Museum specimens (maxillae and mandibles) of the three marmot species occurring in Alaska (Marmota caligata [n = 108 specimens], Marmota monax [n = 30] and Marmota broweri [n = 24]) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. There were 71 specimens (43.8%) from female animals, 69 (42.6%) from male animals and 22 (13.6%) from animals of unknown sex. The ages of animals ranged from neonatal to adult, with 121 young adults (74.4%) and 41 adults (25.3%) included, and 168 excluded from study due to neonatal/juvenile age or incompleteness of specimens (missing part of the dentition). None of the teeth were missing, so 3,564 teeth were available for examination. All teeth were normal in morphology and none was affected by enamel hypoplasia. Two specimens displayed two supernumerary teeth each. One-third of specimens displayed attrition/abrasion and in 38.9% of these the change involved all premolar and molar teeth. The proportion of adult specimens affected by attrition/abrasion was three times as high as young adult specimens. Dental fractures were rare, noted in only two specimens, affecting 0.08% of teeth (n = 3). Periapical disease was also rare, with a striking lesion in one young adult female specimen. Some degree of periodontitis was seen in 26 specimens (16.1%), affecting 4.6% of premolar and molar teeth. The proportion of adults with periodontitis was over three times as high as that for young adults. Five specimens displayed mild malocclusion. Although the clinical significance of dental pathology in the marmot species of Alaska remains elusive, the occurrence and severity of some dental lesions may play an important role in their morbidity and mortality.

Radiographic evaluation in clinical practice of the types and stage of incisor tooth resorption and hypercementosis in horses.

BACKGROUND: There are several reports of incisor tooth resorption and hypercementosis in horses but, to date, studies have been limited in case numbers and to advanced lesions. Tooth resorption in other species is a radiographic diagnosis of types of resorption that are often identified before clinical signs. Our goal was to evaluate radiographically incisor tooth resorption in a large population of horses, utilising interpretation criteria from canine and human dentistry. OBJECTIVE: To document and classify incisor tooth resorption and hypercementosis. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective descriptive case series. METHODS: Horses presented for routine dental care >5 years old were included only if owners were unaware of incisor pathology. Radiographs (three views) were obtained of the incisor teeth and incisor teeth resorption was classified according to the radiographic criteria described for man and dogs. Hypercementosis and its location were recorded. RESULTS: Tooth resorption was detected in 149 of 169 (88.2%) horses and 951 of 1952 (48.7%) of incisor teeth. The classification system used was applicable in 926 (97.2%) of 951 affected teeth. Hypercementosis was detected in 34 (20.1%) horses and 148 (7.6%) teeth. As horses increased in age, resorption and hypercementosis was more frequent; no significant differences were found among sex or breed categories. All horses with hypercementosis had resorption, but only 23.4% of horses with resorption had hypercementosis. Advanced (stage ≥3) resorption was detected in 159 (8.1%) teeth and 54 (32.0%) horses in an otherwise clinically healthy population. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Certain horses' anatomy precluded isolation of the mandibular third incisor teeth from the canine teeth due to superimposition. CONCLUSIONS: Incisor tooth resorption, in particular external replacement resorption and external inflammatory resorption, is common in horses. Hypercementosis is consistently associated with resorption, but the inverse association is inconsistent.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the American Black Bear (Ursus americanus).

Museum specimens (maxillae and/or mandibles) from 371 American black bears (Ursus americanus) acquired between 1889 and 2006 were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria, and 348 were included in this study. Of the 348 specimens, 126 (36.2%) were from male animals, 106 (30.5%) were from female animals and 116 (33.3%) were from animals of unknown sex. Specimen ages ranged from young adult (n = 63, 18.1%) to adult (n = 285, 81.9%), with juveniles excluded from the study. The number of teeth available for examination was 12,019 (82.2%); 7.0% of teeth were absent artefactually, 0.4% were deemed absent due to acquired tooth loss and 9.7% were absent congenitally. In 43 specimens (12.3%), 82 teeth (0.68%) were small vestigial structures with crowns that were flush with the level of surrounding alveolar bone. The remaining teeth (99.3%) were of normal morphology. Only three supernumerary teeth and three instances of enamel hypoplasia were encountered. Persistent deciduous teeth or teeth with an aberrant number of roots were not encountered in any of the specimens. Approximately one-third of the teeth examined (4,543, 37.8%) displayed attrition/abrasion, affecting nearly all of the specimens (n = 338, 97.1%). Incisor and molar teeth accounted for 52.5% and 34.3% of the affected teeth, respectively, with significantly more adults affected than young adults. Dental fractures were noted in 63 bears, affecting 18.1% of specimens and 1.0% of the total number of present teeth. The canine teeth were most often fractured, with adults having significantly more complicated crown fractures of these teeth than young adults. There were 11 specimens (3.2%) that displayed periapical lesions, affecting 12 (0.1%) dental alveoli. There were 179 specimens (51.4%) displaying bony changes indicative of periodontitis, affecting 816 (6.8%) dental alveoli. The proportion of adult bears affected by periodontitis (57.9%) was significantly greater than that of young adults (22.2%). Exactly half of the specimens (n = 174) possessed lesions consistent with mild temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. The occurrence and severity of the dental pathology encountered in this study may play an important role in the morbidity and mortality of the American black bear.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the North American Brown Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis, Ursus arctos middendorffi and Ursus arctos sitkensis).

Museum specimens (maxillae and mandibles) from 393 North American brown bears (Ursus arctos) from Alaska were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria and 204 specimens were included in this study. The specimens were acquired between 1905 and 2012. There were 99 specimens (48.5%) from male animals, 87 (42.7%) from female animals and 18 (8.8%) from animals of unknown sex. The ages of the animals ranged from neonate to adult, with 92 adults (45.1%) and 112 young adults (54.9%) included and neonates/juveniles excluded from the study. The number of teeth available for examination was 6,525 (76.2%); 8.6% of teeth were absent artefactually, 0.8% were deemed absent due to acquired tooth loss and 14.5% were absent congenitally. None of the brown bears had supernumerary teeth, persistent deciduous teeth or abnormally formed crowns. Only four of the specimens in the present population were affected by enamel hypoplasia and one specimen contained two mandibular fourth premolar teeth with one root instead of two. All 204 specimens displayed at least some degree of attrition/abrasion, affecting 63% of all teeth, ranging from mild wear of the enamel to deep abrasion associated with pulp exposure. Ten-times more adult than young adult specimens had abrasion causing pulp exposure, while more young adults showed mild attrition/abrasion. Dental fractures were noted in one-third of brown bears and in 3.0% of the total number of present teeth. More adult brown bears had dental fractures than young adults. There were 11 specimens (5.4%) that displayed overt periapical disease, affecting a total of 20 dental alveoli (0.22%), with adults significantly more affected than young adults. Some degree of periodontitis was seen in 145 specimens (71.1%), affecting 13.6% of all dental alveoli. Nearly one-third (29.9%) of skulls displayed skeletal and/or dental malocclusion, most commonly a level bite. Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) osteoarthritis were found in 27 specimens (13.2%). Caries lesions were discovered in four specimens (2.0%), affecting eight teeth in total. Although the clinical significance of dental and TMJ pathology in the brown bear remains elusive, the occurrence and severity of some of these lesions may play an important role in the morbidity of this species.

Dental Pathology of the California Bobcat (Lynx rufus californicus).

Skulls from 277 California bobcats (Lynx rufus californicus) were examined macroscopically and by radiography. The majority of the skulls were from adult animals (79.8%). The skulls were from 128 male (46.2%) and 114 female (41.2%) animals and gender was unknown for the remainder. The majority (95.6%) of teeth were present for examination. Only 16 teeth were identified as absent congenitally and 15 of these were incisor teeth. Teeth with abnormal morphology were rare (0.5%). The two most common abnormalities were unusually large crowns of the maxillary first molar teeth and bigemination of the mandibular incisor teeth. Teeth with an abnormal number of roots were uncommon (n = 68). Sixty-three teeth had abnormal roots, mostly the presence of two roots instead of one for the maxillary first molar tooth. The most prevalent dental lesions found in the California bobcat were attrition/abrasion (85.2%), periodontitis (56.0%) and tooth fractures (50.9%). Less common dental lesions were endodontal disease (n = 114 teeth) and tooth resorption (n = 73 teeth).

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).

Museum specimens (maxillae and/or mandibles) from 317 polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria and 249 specimens were included in this study. The specimens were acquired between 1906 and 2011. There were 126 specimens (50.6%) from male animals, 93 (37.3%) from female animals and 30 (12.1%) from animals of unknown sex. The ages of the animals ranged from neonate to adult, with 125 adults (50.2%) and 124 young adults (49.8%) included and neonates/juveniles excluded from the study. The number of teeth available for examination was 7,638 (73.5%); 12.3% of teeth were absent artefactually, 0.8% were deemed absent due to acquired tooth loss and 13.4% were absent congenitally. With respect to tooth morphology, 20 teeth (0.26% of available teeth) in 18 specimens (7.2% of available specimens) were small vestigial structures with crowns that were flush with the level of surrounding alveolar bone. One supernumerary tooth and one tooth with enamel hypoplasia were encountered. Persistent deciduous teeth and teeth with an aberrant number of roots were not found. Relatively few teeth (3.7%) displayed attrition/abrasion, 90% of which were the maxillary and mandibular incisor teeth, in 41 polar bears (16.5%). Nearly twice as many adult specimens exhibited attrition/abrasion as those from young adults; significantly more males were affected than females. Dental fractures were noted in 52 polar bears, affecting 20.9% of specimens and 1.3% of the total number of teeth present. More adult polar bears had dental fractures than young adults. There were 21 specimens (8.4%) that displayed overt periapical disease, affecting a total of 24 dental alveoli (0.23%). Some degree of periodontitis was seen in 199 specimens (79.9%); however, only 12.6% of dental alveoli had bony changes indicative of periodontitis. Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) were found in 23 specimens (9.2%). TMJ-OA was significantly more common in adults than in young adults and in males than in females. Although the clinical significance of dental and TMJ pathology in the polar bear remains elusive, the occurrence and severity of these lesions may play an important role in the morbidity and mortality of this species.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus).

Maxillae and/or mandibles from 76 walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. The museum specimens were acquired between 1932 and 2014. Forty-five specimens (59.2%) were from male animals, 29 (38.2%) from female animals and two (2.6%) from animals of unknown sex, with 58 adults (76.3%) and 18 young adults (23.7%) included in this study. The number of teeth available for examination was 830 (33.6%); 18.5% of teeth were absent artefactually, 3.3% were deemed to be absent due to acquired tooth loss and 44.5% were absent congenitally. The theoretical complete dental formula was confirmed to be I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/3, M 2/2, while the most probable dental formula is I 1/0, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 0/0; none of the specimens in this study possessed a full complement of theoretically possible teeth. The majority of teeth were normal in morphology; only five teeth (0.6% of available teeth) were malformed. Only one tooth had an aberrant number of roots and only one supernumerary tooth was encountered. No persistent deciduous teeth were found in any of the young adult or adult specimens, nor were any specimens affected by enamel hypoplasia. The majority of teeth (85.5%) displayed attrition/abrasion. Of the adult and young adult specimens, 90.8% showed some degree of attrition/abrasion on at least one tooth. Tooth fractures were noted in eight walruses, affecting 10.5% of specimens and 1.3% of the total number of teeth, nearly three-quarters of which were maxillary canine teeth (tusks). Three specimens (3.9%), all adult males, displayed overt periapical disease. The majority (99.2%) of dental alveoli did not have bony changes indicative of periodontitis, with only five specimens (6.6%) affected by periodontitis. Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) were found in 46 specimens (60.5%) and TMJ-OA was significantly more common in adults than young adults and males than females. Although the clinical significance of dental and TMJ pathology in the walrus remains unknown, the occurrence and severity of these lesions may play an important role in the morbidity and mortality of this species.

The dental pathology of northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris).

Skulls (n=104) of northern elephant seals from California were examined macroscopically. The animals varied in age but the numbers of each sex were roughly equal. The majority (86%) of teeth were available for examination. The mandibular first premolars were the most common teeth to be congenitally absent, with 2.3% missing. Supernumerary teeth (usually a supplemental mandibular molar) were associated with only 1.4% of normal teeth (or empty alveolar sockets). At least one persistent deciduous tooth was present in 38% of skulls, 70% of which were juvenile skulls. The majority (95.8%) of premolars had the type 2a tooth form, with only 3.8% and 0.5% of type 2b and 2c, respectively. Forty-six skulls, of which 43 were from adults, showed signs of attrition. Tooth fractures were uncommon, affecting only 33 teeth (1.2%). One skull showed an "incremental line" suggestive of enamel hypoplasia. Periodontal hard tissue lesions were seen in 44.3% of all teeth present (46.0% of skulls). Six cases of periapical disease with bone loss were observed.

The temporomandibular joint of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus): part 1 - characterisation in health and disease.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to characterise the histologic, biomechanical and biochemical properties of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of California sea lions. In addition, we sought to identify structure-function relationships and to characterise TMJ lesions found in this species. DESIGN: Temporomandibular joints from fresh cadaver heads (n=14) of California sea lions acquired from strandings were examined macroscopically and microscopically. The specimens were also evaluated for their mechanical and biochemical properties. Furthermore, if TMJ arthritic changes were present, joint characteristics were described and compared to healthy joints. RESULTS: Five male and 9 female specimens demonstrated macroscopically normal fibrocartilaginous articular surfaces and fibrous discs in the TMJ. Out of the 9 female specimens, 4 specimens had TMJ lesions were seen either in the articular surface or the disc. Histologically, these pathologic specimens demonstrated subchondral bone defects, cartilage irregularities and inflammatory cell infiltrates. The normal TMJ discs did not exhibit significant direction dependence in tensile stiffness or strength in the rostrocaudal direction compared with the mediolateral direction among normal discs or discs from affected joints. The TMJ discs were not found to be anisotropic in tensile properties. This feature was further supported by randomly oriented collagen fibres as seen by electron microscopy. Furthermore, no significant differences were detected in biochemical composition of the discs dependent upon population. CONCLUSION: The TMJ and its disc of the California sea lion exhibit similarities but also differences compared to other mammals with regards to structure-function relationships. A fibrous TMJ disc rich in collagen with minimal glycosaminoglycan content was characterised, and random fibre organisation was associated with isotropic mechanical properties in the central region of the disc.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus).

Skulls from 145 northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. The museum specimens were acquired from strandings along the west coast of the USA between 1896 and 2008. Seventy-one skulls (49.0%) were from male animals, 56 (38.6%) from female animals and 18 (12.4%) from animals of unknown sex. Their age varied from juvenile to adult, with 58 adult animals (40.0%) and 87 juvenile animals (60.0%). The majority of teeth were available for examination (95.1%); 3.4% of teeth were artefactually absent, 0.8% were deemed absent due to acquired tooth loss and 0.6% were deemed congenitally absent. Males were no more likely than females to have either acquired tooth loss (P = 0.054) or congenitally absent teeth (P = 0.919). Adults had significantly more acquired tooth loss than juveniles (P = 0.0099). Malformations were seen in 11 teeth (0.2% of all 4,699 teeth available for examination). Two roots, instead of the typical one root, were found on 14 teeth (0.3%). Supernumerary teeth were associated with 14 normal teeth (0.3%) in eight specimens (5.5% of the total number of specimens). A total of 22 persistent deciduous teeth were found, 19 of which were associated with the maxillary canine teeth. Attrition/abrasion was seen on 194 teeth (3.9%); the canine teeth were most often affected, accounting for 39.7% of all abraded teeth. Adults were found to have a greater prevalence of abraded teeth than juveniles (P <0.0001). No significant difference was found in the appearance of attrition/abrasion between males and females (P = 0.072). Tooth fractures were found in 24 specimens (16.6%), affecting a total of 54 teeth (1.1%). Periapical lesions were found in two skulls (1.4%). None of the specimens showed signs of enamel hypoplasia. About a fifth (18.6%) of alveoli, either with or without teeth, showed signs of alveolar bony changes consistent with periodontitis. A total of 108 specimens (74.5%) had at least one tooth associated with mild periodontitis. Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) were found in 29 specimens (20.0%). Both periodontal disease and TMJ-OA were significantly more common in adults than in juveniles (P <0.0001). Periodontitis was found to be more common in males than in females (P <0.012). Although the significance of the high incidence of periodontitis and TMJ-OA in the northern fur seal remains unknown, the occurrence and severity of these diseases found in this study may play an important role in this species morbidity and mortality.

Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology of the Eastern Pacific Harbour Seal (Phoca vitulina richardii).

Skulls from 214 Eastern Pacific harbour seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. The museum specimens were acquired from strandings along the west coast of the USA between 1909 and 2014. Ninety-eight skulls (45.8%) were from male animals, 108 (50.5%) from female animals and eight (3.7%) from animals of unknown sex. Their age varied from neonate to adult, with 101 adult animals (47.2%), 93 juvenile animals (43.5%) and 20 neonatal animals (9.3%). The majority of teeth were available for examination (90.0%); 7.5% of teeth were absent artefactually, 2.3% were deemed absent due to acquired tooth loss and 0.2% were absent congenitally. Males were no more likely than females to have either acquired tooth loss (P = 0.492) or congenitally absent teeth (P = 0.494). Adults had significantly more acquired tooth loss than juveniles (P <0.0001). All teeth were normal in morphology, except for four teeth from one skull that exhibited macrodontia. An unusual number of roots were found in most maxillary molar teeth; three roots were counted on six maxillary molar teeth and almost all other maxillary molar teeth available for examination had a fused root. Only 26 maxillary molar teeth exhibited two roots. Supernumerary teeth were associated with 13 normal teeth in nine specimens. The most common sites associated with supernumerary teeth were the left and right mandibular first premolar teeth (53.9% of all supernumerary teeth). No persistent deciduous teeth were found in any of the juvenile or adult specimens. Of the total number of teeth available for examination, 22.1% were abraded; six adult specimens showed attrition/abrasion on all of their teeth present. Adults were found to have a greater prevalence of abraded teeth than juveniles (P <0.0001). No significant difference was found in the appearance of attrition/abrasion between males and females (P = 0.518). Tooth fractures were uncommon, affecting 11 teeth (0.2%) in seven animals. Periapical lesions were found in four skulls (2.1% of the total number of specimens). None of the specimens showed signs of enamel hypoplasia. More than half (55.6%) of alveoli, either with or without teeth, showed signs of alveolar bony changes consistent with periodontitis. A total of 178 specimens (91.8%) had at least one tooth associated with mild periodontitis. Lesions consistent with temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) were found in 67 specimens (34.5%). The most common articular surface to be affected was the left mandibular fossa of the temporal bone, with lesions in 44 cases (32.8% of all lesions). In 13 specimens (6.7%) all articular surfaces were affected. Both periodontal disease and TMJ-OA were significantly more common in adults than in juveniles (P <0.0001). Although the significance of the high incidence of periodontitis and TMJ-OA in the Eastern Pacific harbor seal remains unknown, the occurrence and severity of these diseases as found in this study may play an important role in the morbidity and mortality of this species.

The temporomandibular joint of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus): part 2-osteoarthritic changes.

OBJECTIVES: Following comprehensive characterization of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of the California sea lion, as well demonstrating that TMJ-osteoarthritis (OA) occurs in this species, the objective of this part of the investigation was to describe the macroscopic osteologic findings associated with TMJ-OA in a large museum collection of skull specimens. DESIGN: Museum skull specimens (n=497) of California sea lions were examined macroscopically according to defined criteria for the presence, severity, location and characteristics of TMJ-OA. The specimens, acquired from strandings, varied in age from young adults to mature adults. RESULTS: Overall 63.5% of the specimens had findings consistent with TMJ-OA. Of these, 56.2% were from females 43.8% were from males. Moreover, 71.2% specimens were from mature adults and 28.8% from young adults. However, there was no significant association between age and sex with the presence or severity of TMJ-OA. The most prominent TMJ-OA changes were the presence of subchondral bone defects and abnormal porosity. The majority of the OA present at the mandibular head affected the entire articular surface. In contrast, the OA present on the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone was located primarily on the medial aspect (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: The incidence of TMJ-OA in California sea lions is high and varies in severity. Although the significance of the high incidence of this disease in the California sea lion remains elusive, the occurrence and severity of TMJ-OA detected in this study may play an important role in the species' morbidity and mortality.

Characterization of the temporomandibular joint of the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) and Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus).

OBJECTIVES: The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in cetaceans is largely uncharacterized. This study aims to describe the macroscopic, microscopic, biochemical and biomechanical features of the TMJ of two species of the suborder Odontoceti: the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) and Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus). Furthermore, we aim to elucidate the structure-function relationship of their TMJs and their possible role in echolocation. DESIGN: The TMJs from fresh cadaver heads of harbour porpoise (n=4) and Risso's dolphin (n=2) acquired from stranding were examined. Following macroscopical evaluation, the TMJs were investigated for their histological, mechanical and biochemical properties. RESULTS: The TMJs of the studied odontocetes were found to be fundamentally different from other mammals. Macroscopically, the TMJ lacks the typical joint cavity found in most mammals and is essentially a syndesmosis. Histological and microstructural analysis revealed that the TMJ discs were composed of haphazardly intersecting fibrous-connective tissue bundles separated by adipose tissue globules and various calibre blood vessels and nerve fibres. The collagen fibre composition was primarily collagen type I with lesser amounts of collagen type II. Sulphated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content was lower compared to other studied mammals. Finally, mechanical testing demonstrated the disc was stronger and stiffer in the dorsoventral direction than in the mediolateral direction. CONCLUSION: The spatial position of the TMJ, the absence of an articulating synovial joint, and the properties of the TMJ discs all reflect the unique suction-feeding mechanism adopted by the harbour porpoise and Risso's dolphin for underwater foraging. In addition, the presence of unique adipose globules, blood vessels and nerves throughout the discs may indicate a functional need beyond food apprehension. Instead, the disc may play a role in neurological sensory functions such as echolocation.