Impact of lossy compression of X-ray projections onto reconstructed tomographic slices.

Modern detectors used at synchrotron tomographic microscopy beamlines typically have sensors with more than 4-5 mega-pixels and are capable of acquiring 100-1000 frames per second at full frame. As a consequence, a data rate of a few TB per day can easily be exceeded, reaching peaks of a few tens of TB per day for time-resolved tomographic experiments. This data needs to be post-processed, analysed, stored and possibly transferred, imposing a significant burden onto the IT infrastructure. Compression of tomographic data, as routinely done for diffraction experiments, is therefore highly desirable. This study considers a set of representative datasets and investigates the effect of lossy compression of the original X-ray projections onto the final tomographic reconstructions. It demonstrates that a compression factor of at least three to four times does not generally impact the reconstruction quality. Potentially, compression with this factor could therefore be used in a transparent way to the user community, for instance, prior to data archiving. Higher factors (six to eight times) can be achieved for tomographic volumes with a high signal-to-noise ratio as it is the case for phase-retrieved datasets. Although a relationship between the dataset signal-to-noise ratio and a safe compression factor exists, this is not simple and, even considering additional dataset characteristics such as image entropy and high-frequency content variation, the automatic optimization of the compression factor for each single dataset, beyond the conservative factor of three to four, is not straightforward.

Constrained X-ray tensor tomography reconstruction.

Quite recently, a method has been presented to reconstruct X-ray scattering tensors from projections obtained in a grating interferometry setup. The original publications present a rather specialised approach, for instance by suggesting a single SART-based solver. In this work, we propose a novel approach to solving the inverse problem, allowing the use of other algorithms than SART (like conjugate gradient), a faster tensor recovery, and an intuitive visualisation. Furthermore, we introduce constraint enforcement for X-ray tensor tomography (cXTT) and demonstrate that this yields visually smoother results in comparison to the state-of-art approach, similar to regularisation.

Flexible mini gamma camera reconstructions of extended sources using step and shoot and list mode.

PURPOSE: Hand- and robot-guided mini gamma cameras have been introduced for the acquisition of single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) images. Less cumbersome than whole-body scanners, they allow for a fast acquisition of the radioactivity distribution, for example, to differentiate cancerous from hormonally hyperactive lesions inside the thyroid. This work compares acquisition protocols and reconstruction algorithms in an attempt to identify the most suitable approach for fast acquisition and efficient image reconstruction, suitable for localization of extended sources, such as lesions inside the thyroid. METHODS: Our setup consists of a mini gamma camera with precise tracking information provided by a robotic arm, which also provides reproducible positioning for our experiments. Based on a realistic phantom of the thyroid including hot and cold nodules as well as background radioactivity, the authors compare "step and shoot" (SAS) and continuous data (CD) acquisition protocols in combination with two different statistical reconstruction methods: maximum-likelihood expectation-maximization (ML-EM) for time-integrated count values and list-mode expectation-maximization (LM-EM) for individually detected gamma rays. In addition, the authors simulate lower uptake values by statistically subsampling the experimental data in order to study the behavior of their approach without changing other aspects of the acquired data. RESULTS: All compared methods yield suitable results, resolving the hot nodules and the cold nodule from the background. However, the CD acquisition is twice as fast as the SAS acquisition, while yielding better coverage of the thyroid phantom, resulting in qualitatively more accurate reconstructions of the isthmus between the lobes. For CD acquisitions, the LM-EM reconstruction method is preferable, as it yields comparable image quality to ML-EM at significantly higher speeds, on average by an order of magnitude. CONCLUSIONS: This work identifies CD acquisition protocols combined with LM-EM reconstruction as a prime candidate for the wider introduction of SPECT imaging with flexible mini gamma cameras in the clinical practice.

X-ray computed tomography using curvelet sparse regularization.

PURPOSE: Reconstruction of x-ray computed tomography (CT) data remains a mathematically challenging problem in medical imaging. Complementing the standard analytical reconstruction methods, sparse regularization is growing in importance, as it allows inclusion of prior knowledge. The paper presents a method for sparse regularization based on the curvelet frame for the application to iterative reconstruction in x-ray computed tomography. METHODS: In this work, the authors present an iterative reconstruction approach based on the alternating direction method of multipliers using curvelet sparse regularization. RESULTS: Evaluation of the method is performed on a specifically crafted numerical phantom dataset to highlight the method's strengths. Additional evaluation is performed on two real datasets from commercial scanners with different noise characteristics, a clinical bone sample acquired in a micro-CT and a human abdomen scanned in a diagnostic CT. The results clearly illustrate that curvelet sparse regularization has characteristic strengths. In particular, it improves the restoration and resolution of highly directional, high contrast features with smooth contrast variations. The authors also compare this approach to the popular technique of total variation and to traditional filtered backprojection. CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude that curvelet sparse regularization is able to improve reconstruction quality by reducing noise while preserving highly directional features.

Mini gamma cameras for intra-operative nuclear tomographic reconstruction.

Nuclear imaging modalities like PET or SPECT are in extensive use in medical diagnostics. In a move towards personalized therapy, we present a flexible nuclear tomographic imaging system to enable intra-operative SPECT-like 3D imaging. The system consists of a miniaturized gamma camera mounted on a robot arm for flexible positioning, while spatio-temporal localization is provided by an optical tracking system. To facilitate statistical tomographic reconstruction of the radiotracer distribution using a maximum likelihood approach, a precise model of the mini gamma camera is generated by measurements. The entire system is evaluated in a series of experiments using a hot spot phantom, with a focus on criteria relevant for the intra-operative workflow, namely the number of required imaging positions as well as the required imaging time. The results show that high quality reconstructed images of simple hot spot configurations with positional errors of less than one millimeter are possible within acquisition times as short as 15s.

Towards personalized interventional SPECT-CT imaging.

The development of modern robotics and compact imaging detectors allows the transfer of diagnostic imaging modalities to the operating room, supporting surgeons to perform faster and safer procedures. An intervention that currently suffers from a lack of interventional imaging is radioembolization, a treatment for hepatic carcinoma. Currently, this procedure requires moving the patient from an angiography suite for preliminary catheterization and injection to a whole-body SPECT/CT for leakage detection, necessitating a second catheterization back in the angiography suite for the actual radioembolization. We propose an imaging setup that simplifies this procedure using a robotic approach to directly acquire an interventional SPECT/CT in the angiography suite. Using C-arm CT and a co-calibrated gamma camera mounted on a robotic arm, a personalized trajectory of the gamma camera is generated from the C-arm CT, enabling an interventional SPECT reconstruction that is inherently co-registered to the C-arm CT. In this work we demonstrate the feasibility of this personalized interventional SPECT/CT imaging approach in a liver phantom study.

Trajectory optimization for intra-operative nuclear tomographic imaging.

Diagnostic nuclear imaging modalities like SPECT typically employ gantries to ensure a densely sampled geometry of detectors in order to keep the inverse problem of tomographic reconstruction as well-posed as possible. In an intra-operative setting with mobile freehand detectors the situation changes significantly, and having an optimal detector trajectory during acquisition becomes critical. In this paper we propose an incremental optimization method based on the numerical condition of the system matrix of the underlying iterative reconstruction method to calculate optimal detector positions during acquisition in real-time. The performance of this approach is evaluated using simulations. A first experiment on a phantom using a robot-controlled intra-operative SPECT-like setup demonstrates the feasibility of the approach.

First use of mini gamma cameras for intra-operative robotic SPECT reconstruction.

Different types of nuclear imaging systems have been used in the past, starting with pre-operative gantry-based SPECT systems and gamma cameras for 2D imaging of radioactive distributions. The main applications are concentrated on diagnostic imaging, since traditional SPECT systems and gamma cameras are bulky and heavy. With the development of compact gamma cameras with good resolution and high sensitivity, it is now possible to use them without a fixed imaging gantry. Mounting the camera onto a robot arm solves the weight issue, while also providing a highly repeatable and reliable acquisition platform. In this work we introduce a novel robotic setup performing scans with a mini gamma camera, along with the required calibration steps, and show the first SPECT reconstructions. The results are extremely promising, both in terms of image quality as well as reproducibility. In our experiments, the novel setup outperformed a commercial fhSPECT system, reaching accuracies comparable to state-of-the-art SPECT systems.

Optimization of acquisition geometry for intra-operative tomographic imaging.

Acquisition geometries for tomographic reconstruction are usually densely sampled in order to keep the underlying linear system used in iterative reconstruction as well-posed as possible. While this objective is easily enforced in imaging systems with gantries, this issue is more critical for intra-operative setups using freehand-guided data sensing. This paper investigates an incremental method to monitor the numerical condition of the system based on the singular value decomposition of the system matrix, and presents an approach to find optimal detector positions via a randomized optimization scheme. The feasibility of this approach is demonstrated using simulations of an intra-operative functional imaging setup and actual robot-controlled phantom experiments.

Locality and circulation in the Habsburg empire: disputing the Carlsbad medical salt, 1763-1784.

By looking at the fierce debates in the city of Carlsbad in Bohemia around the fabrication of medical salt by a local doctor, David Becher, from 1763 to 1784, the paper examines the interactions between different spheres or levels of circulation of knowledge in the Habsburg Empire. The dispute crystallized around the definition of the product, about its medical qualities and its relation with the water of the local mineral spring. The city's inhabitants contested the vision of the medical experts, fearing that the extraction of the medical salt from the spring water and its sale outside the town would have a negative effect on the number of visitors to the spa. Their vision implied a more or less 'popularized' form of alchemical thinking as it identified the mineral water with the extracted 'salt', conceived as the 'essence' of the water, produced by evaporation. The Carlsbad salt dispute highlights the complex interactions among the different networks in which knowledge circulated through the Habsburg Empire in the eighteenth century. The different actors relied on specific networks with different logics of discourse and different modes of circulation. In each case the relation between the local, the regional and the imperial had to be negotiated. The paper thus sketches out the different geographies of knowledge in the Habsburg Empire but also its localization in and around Carlsbad.

Dynamic cone beam reconstruction using a new level set formulation.

This paper addresses an approach toward tomographic reconstruction from rotational angiography data as it is generated by C-arms in cardiac imaging. Since the rotational acquisition scheme forces a trade-off between consistency of the scene and reasonable baselines, most existing reconstruction techniques fail at recovering the 3D + t scene. We propose a new reconstruction framework based on variational level sets including a new data term for symbolic reconstruction as well as a novel incorporation of motion into the level set formalism. The resulting simultaneous estimation of shape and motion proves feasible in the presented experiments. Since the proposed formulation offers a great flexibility in incorporating other data terms as well as hard or soft constraints, it allows an adaption to a wider range of problems and could be of interest to other reconstruction settings as well.

Magneto-optical tracking of flexible laparoscopic ultrasound: model-based online detection and correction of magnetic tracking errors.

Electromagnetic tracking is currently one of the most promising means of localizing flexible endoscopic instruments such as flexible laparoscopic ultrasound transducers. However, electromagnetic tracking is also susceptible to interference from ferromagnetic material, which distorts the magnetic field and leads to tracking errors. This paper presents new methods for real-time online detection and reduction of dynamic electromagnetic tracking errors when localizing a flexible laparoscopic ultrasound transducer. We use a hybrid tracking setup to combine optical tracking of the transducer shaft and electromagnetic tracking of the flexible transducer tip. A novel approach of modeling the poses of the transducer tip in relation to the transducer shaft allows us to reliably detect and significantly reduce electromagnetic tracking errors. For detecting errors of more than 5 mm, we achieved a sensitivity and specificity of 91% and 93%, respectively. Initial 3-D rms error of 6.91 mm were reduced to 3.15 mm.

New approaches to online estimation of electromagnetic tracking errors for laparoscopic ultrasonography.

In abdominal surgery, a laparoscopic ultrasound transducer is commonly used to detect lesions such as metastases. The determination and visualization of the position and orientation of its flexible tip in relation to the patient or other surgical instruments can be a great support for surgeons using the transducer intraoperatively. This difficult subject has recently received attention from the scientific community. Electromagnetic tracking systems can be applied to track the flexible tip; however, current limitations of electromagnetic tracking include its accuracy and sensibility, i.e., the magnetic field can be distorted by ferromagnetic material. This paper presents two novel methods for estimation of electromagnetic tracking error. Based on optical tracking of the laparoscope, as well as on magneto-optic and visual tracking of the transducer, these methods automatically detect in 85% of all cases whether tracking is erroneous or not, and reduce tracking errors by up to 2.5 mm.

Magneto-optic tracking of a flexible laparoscopic ultrasound transducer for laparoscope augmentation.

In abdominal surgery, a laparoscopic ultrasound transducer is commonly used to detect lesions such as metastases. The determination and visualization of position and orientation of its flexible tip in relation to the patient or other surgical instruments can be of much help to (novice) surgeons utilizing the transducer intraoperatively. This difficult subject has recently been paid attention to by the scientific community . Electromagnetic tracking systems can be applied to track the flexible tip. However, the magnetic field can be distorted by ferromagnetic material. This paper presents a new method based on optical tracking of the laparoscope and magneto-optic tracking of the transducer, which is able to automatically detect field distortions. This is used for a smooth augmentation of the B-scan images of the transducer directly on the camera images in real time.

Real-time fusion of ultrasound and gamma probe for navigated localization of liver metastases.

Liver metastases are an advanced stage of several types of cancer, usually treated with surgery. Intra-operative localization of these lesions is currently facilitated by intra-operative ultrasound (IOUS) and palpation, yielding a high rate of false positives due to benign abnormal regions. In this paper we present the integration of functional nuclear information from a gamma probe with IOUS, to provide a synchronized, real-time visualization that facilitates the detection of active metastases intra-operatively. We evaluate the system in an ex-vivo setup employing a group of physicians and medical technicians and show that the addition of functional imaging improves the accuracy of localizing and identifying malignant and benign lesions significantly. Furthermore we are able to demonstrate that the inclusion of an advanced, augmented visualization provides more reliability and confidence on classifying these lesions in the presented evaluation setup.