Dehydroepiandrosterone Heightens Aggression and Increases Androgen Receptor and Aromatase mRNA Expression in the Brain of a Male Songbird.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a testosterone/oestrogen precursor and known modulator of vertebrate aggression. Male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia morphna) show high aggression during breeding and nonbreeding life-history stages when circulating DHEA levels are high, and low aggression during molt when DHEA levels are low. We previously showed that androgen receptor and aromatase mRNA expression are higher during breeding and/or nonbreeding in brain regions associated with reproductive and aggressive behaviour, although the potential role of DHEA in mediating these seasonal changes remained unclear. In the present study, nonbreeding male song sparrows were captured and held in the laboratory under short days (8 : 16 h light/dark cycle) and implanted with s.c. DHEA-filled or empty (control) implants for 14 days. DHEA implants increased aggression in a laboratory-based simulated territorial intrusion. Brains of DHEA-implanted birds showed higher aromatase mRNA expression in the preoptic area (POA) and higher androgen receptor mRNA expression in the periventricular nucleus of the medial striatum (pvMSt) and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. The DHEA-induced increases in aromatase expression in the POA and androgen receptor expression in the pvMSt are consistent with previously reported seasonal increases in these markers associated with naturally elevated DHEA levels. This suggests that DHEA facilitates seasonal increases in aggression in nonbreeding male song sparrows by up-regulating steroid signalling/synthesis machinery in a brain region-specific fashion.

Middle ear cilia activity as a determinant of tympanostomy tube placement.

Three hundred and twenty-six patients with diagnoses of serous otitis media--or mucoid otitis media--were reviewed for the presence or absence of middle ear cilia activity. This study strongly suggests that if active cilia can be observed, ventilating tubes are not needed. This easily observed activity in the anterior-inferior quadrant offers the otolaryngologist an accurate tool for determination of the future health of the middle ear.

Behavioral problems among twins.

Despite the frequency of multiple births, little information is available to assist parents and health professionals in the identification and management of behavior problems in multiple-birth siblings. Three case reports are presented that describe quarreling, aggression, and feeding problems among twins. To develop intervention strategies most appropriate for the problem behavior, it is important to determine whether (1) parents are able to effectively implement the intervention strategy, (2) behavior is isolated to one sibling, and (3) different reasons are responsible for similar behavior in siblings. Structured observations were used to determine whether the undesired behavior occurred to escape nonpreferred activities, gain access to preferred activities, or obtain parental attention. The cases provide a framework to facilitate the identification and management of common behavior problems occurring among multiple-birth siblings.

Evaluation and long-term treatment of aberrant behavior displayed by young children with disabilities.

We trained parents to conduct functional analyses and functional communication treatment for 28 young children with developmental disabilities who displayed aberrant behavior. Of this sample, 22 parents conducted treatment for at least 3 months and 11 for 1 year. We conducted single-case analyses of the results of assessment and treatment. The functional analysis identified social functions (positive and negative reinforcement) for 86% (24 of 28) of the children. Treatment resulted in a pre/post decrease in aberrant behavior averaging 87% across the range of children, with the greatest decrease occurring at 3 months. Appropriate social responding increased, on average, by 69% across the range of children. Decreases in aberrant behavior were demonstrated in all children, and all except one child displayed increased social behavior during treatment. On a measure of parent-rated treatment acceptability, ranging from 1 (not at all acceptable) to 7 (very acceptable), the average overall acceptability was 6.35.

A demonstration of generalization of performance across settings, materials, and motor responses for students with profound mental retardation.

A treatment package, consisting of multiple exemplar training and community-based instruction, was evaluated for its effectiveness in teaching four students with profound mental retardation and multiple disabilities to participate in two sets of community-living tasks. All training took place in community settings, and each student demonstrated improved performance on at least one task set. In addition, all students demonstrated improved performance on a series of tasks selected to assess generalization of performance across settings, materials, and/or motoric responses required to complete the target task. Maintenance of performance over a 4- to 5-month period was assessed and achieved for two of the students. The results of this investigation are discussed in terms of the implications for programming for students with profound mental retardation.

Combining descriptive and experimental analyses of young children with behavior problems in preschool settings.

This investigation shows the merits of preceding experimental analyses with descriptive analyses of functional variables with preschool children who engage in problematic behavior. A two-phase descriptive analysis was conducted in daycare settings with three children. In Phase 1, the authors assessed the relation between child behavior and structural events. During Phase 2, the same behavior was replotted by functional variables. The results showed that when the descriptive data were plotted via functional variables, specific hypotheses could be generated regarding the variables controlling appropriate behavior. This procedure permitted the subsequent use of very brief experimental analyses to further identify functional relations. The use of descriptive analyses of functional rather than structural variables may be an important component in the assessment of problem behavior in community settings.

Use of a concurrent operants paradigm to evaluate positive reinforcers during treatment of food refusal.

The authors evaluated the responsiveness of 4 preschool-aged children to positive reinforcers within a concurrent operants paradigm during mealtimes. The children were presented with two identical, concurrently available sets of food. Each set differed in quantity and quality of positive reinforcement paired with acceptance of each bite of food or in the number of bites of food required to obtain positive reinforcement. Experiment 1 evaluated 1 child's responsiveness to positive reinforcement while permitting escape from bite offers. Experiment 2 evaluated 2 children's responsiveness to positive reinforcement when escape extinction occurred. Results from these experiments suggested that the children were responsive to positive reinforcers and chose more often the bites paired with the greater quantity and/or quality of reinforcement. Experiment 3 evaluated 1 child's responsiveness to positive reinforcement both without and with escape extinction. Results suggested that positive reinforcement affected choice behavior and that escape extinction affected amount of food consumed.

Retentive pins. Their use and misuse.

Retentive pins have brought with them both ecstasy and agony. Their history, use, and situations resulting from their misuse are reviewed in this article. Correction of common errors will prove useful to the reader.

Evaluation of tactile prompts with a student who is deaf, blind, and mentally retarded.

We provided tactile cues to a student who was deaf, blind, and mentally retarded to guide her performance on a variety of packaging tasks. The student had previously received extensive training on multiple packaging and sequencing tasks through her vocational education program. Although she was able to complete these tasks, each change in materials necessitated that similar levels of retraining be conducted in order for her to perform revised tasks. Tactile cues were introduced and evaluated through a multiple baseline with sequential withdrawal design for two envelope-stuffing tasks and one bagging task. Results indicated that the tactile prompts were effective in guiding her performance on the training task and in promoting generalization to novel tasks and cues. Continued use of the cues was necessary to maintain the student's performance. Our findings suggest that tactile prompts function similarly to picture prompts and may be an effective alternative external prompting system for persons for whom picture prompts would not be appropriate.

Effects of picture prompts on the acquisition of complex vocational tasks by mentally retarded adolescents.

The effects of using picture prompts on the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of complex vocational tasks were evaluated within a multiple baseline design across subjects and tasks. Five moderately and severely mentally retarded adolescents were first trained to use picture prompts to guide their performance on one or more complex tasks. Following training, posttesting with and without the picture prompts was conducted to evaluate the effects of training and to determine maintenance effects over a 2- to 4-week interval. Generalization of performance across tasks was assessed with three of the students who were provided novel tasks (with and without picture prompts) without training. Results indicated that picture prompts can be successfully used to promote both acquisition and generalization of performance, and that subsequent training time on a novel task was reduced when the use of picture prompts had been previously trained.

Response efficiency during functional communication training: effects of effort on response allocation.

An analogue functional analysis revealed that the problem behavior of a young child with developmental delays was maintained by positive reinforcement. A concurrent-schedule procedure was then used to vary the amount of effort required to emit mands. Results suggested that response effort can be an important variable when developing effective functional communication training programs.

Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of two stimulus prompt strategies with severely handicapped students.

In this study we compared the effectiveness and efficiency of two treatment packages that used stimulus prompt sequences and task analyses for teaching community living skills to severely handicapped students. Four severely and multiply handicapped students were trained to perform four tasks: (a) making toast, (b) making popcorn, (c) operating a clothes dryer, and (d) operating a washing machine. Following baseline, each student was exposed to two types of training procedures, each involving a task analysis of the target behavior. Training Procedure 1 (Traditional) utilized a least-to-most restrictive prompt sequence. Training Procedure 2 (Prescriptive) utilized ongoing behavioral assessment data to identify discriminative stimuli. The assessment data were used to prescribe instructional prompts across successive training trials. Performance on the tasks was evaluated within a combination multiple baseline (across subjects) and probe (across tasks) design. Training conditions were counterbalanced across subjects and tasks. Results indicated that both training procedures were equally effective in increasing independent task acquisition for subjects on all tasks; however, the prescriptive procedure was the more efficient procedure.

Training students with profound or multiple handicaps to make requests via microswitches.

In a series of three experiments, we evaluated the use of microswitches as a means for students with profound, multiple handicaps to demonstrate preferences between toys and to make requests for specific activities. In Experiment 1, 5 students learned to demonstrate toy preferences by using microswitches to activate battery-operated toys. Experiment 2 was conducted to evaluate the students' preferences for social attention. Microswitches were used to activate prerecorded messages that signaled the classroom teacher to attend to the students. In Experiment 3, the students used the switches and prerecorded messages to make specific requests of educational staff in school and community settings. Results of these experiments, evaluated within multiple baseline, alternating treatments, and simultaneous treatments designs, indicated that these students could request specific activities. Results are discussed with respect to the continued use of microswitches and to program development.

Teaching multiplication facts to students with learning disabilities.

Multiple baseline designs were used to examine the effects of an instructional package on accuracy of performance in solving multiplication facts by 3 students with learning disabilities. The instructional package included the following components: (a) a modified instructional sequence in which multiplication facts were grouped into the zeros, ones, doubles, fives, and nines categories, and those remaining; (b) identification of the category in which each fact belonged; (c) mnemonic strategies associated with solving facts in each category; and (d) steps to be completed for solving facts in each category. Results indicated that the instructional package produced substantial and immediate effects. After receiving instruction, a participant's accuracy was often 100%, and this was maintained throughout the evaluation even as other strategies were introduced. Comparable results occurred across students, demonstrating replication of the effects of the instructional package.

Increasing compliance with medical procedures: application of the high-probability request procedure to a toddler.

The effects of high-probability (high-p) requests on compliance with low-probability (low-p) responses have received increased attention from applied investigators. This study examined the effects of a high-p procedure on a toddler's compliance with medical procedures. Compliance to low-p requests occurred more frequently following compliance to high-p requests, suggesting that this procedure may be useful across different topographies of compliance.

Evaluation of the generalized effects of a peer-training procedure with moderately retarded adolescents.

The use of peer-training procedures by moderately mentally retarded adolescents was evaluated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 2 students received instruction on peer-training skills to teach a vocational task to 7 classmates. Following instruction, both peer trainers were successful in teaching their classmates to perform the target task and a second untrained (generalization) task. In Experiment 2, 1 peer trainer taught 3 peers to use picture prompts to complete one or two complex vocational tasks. Following instruction by the peer trainer, the trainees independently used novel pictures on novel tasks. The results of both experiments indicate that peer training with moderately handicapped students can be an effective instructional procedure, with generalization occurring for both the trainers (Experiment 1) and the trainees (Experiment 2).

Generalization and maintenance of complex skills by severely handicapped adolescents following picture prompt training.

Three severely handicapped adolescents were trained, using a picture prompt package, to complete three complex vocational or daily living tasks. Results indicated that all students required many training sessions to learn the first training task. Following initial training, however, all students generalized their use of the pictures across settings without additional training. The students also needed substantially reduced amounts of training on the remaining two tasks. During maintenance, two of the students continued to perform at relatively high levels of accuracy with and without the picture prompts, whereas one student continued to need the pictures.

Effects of escape to alone versus escape to enriched environments on adaptive and aberrant behavior.

Escape-maintained aberrant behavior may be influenced by two outcomes: (a) a break from the activity and (b) subsequent access to preferred activities. To assess this hypothesis, a treatment was developed that analyzed response allocation across two break options: break alone and break with access to preferred social activities. The break with preferred activities decreased aberrant behavior and increased appropriate behavior.

The effects of presession exposure to attention on the results of assessments of attention as a reinforcer.

The effects of presession exposure to attention on responding during subsequent assessments of attention as a reinforcer were evaluated across three behavioral assessments. In Experiment 1, a contingent attention assessment condition was preceded by either a noncontingent attention condition (free play) or a contingent escape condition. In Experiment 2, a diverted attention with extinction condition was preceded by either an alone or a free-play condition. In Experiment 3, a two-choice preference assessment was preceded by either 10 min of free play or 10 min of playing alone. In each experiment, the participant responded differentially within the test condition according to the presence or absence of dense schedules of attention immediately prior to that condition. The results of this study show that events occurring immediately prior to an assessment condition can influence behavior within the assessment.

Improving the peer interactions of students with emotional and behavioral disorders through self-evaluation procedures: a component analysis and group application.

We conducted two experiments examining the effects of a self-evaluation package on the peer interactions of students described as emotionally or behaviorally disordered. Experiment 1 assessed the additive effects of various components of a self-evaluation package on the frequency of inappropriate and appropriate peer interactions. The components assessed were rewards alone, rewards plus discussion, and self-evaluation plus rewards. Results showed limited effectiveness when rewards alone and rewards plus discussion were implemented. However, substantial improvements in peer interactions were observed when the self-evaluation component was added. Experiment 2 examined the efficacy and feasibility of the procedures when implemented in a group setting. Students in three classrooms served as participants. Direct observation data collected for 8 of the participants showed the procedures to be effective in improving peer interactions when implemented in a group context.