The Grenada Learning and Memory Scale: Psychometric features and normative data in Caribbean preschool children.

OBJECTIVE: Neuropsychological assessment of preschool children is essential for early detection of delays and referral for intervention prior to school entry. This is especially pertinent in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), which are disproportionately impacted by micronutrient deficiencies and teratogenic exposures. The Grenada Learning and Memory Scale (GLAMS) was created for use in limited resource settings and includes a shopping list and face-name association test. Here, we present psychometric and normative data for the GLAMS in a Grenadian preschool sample. METHODS: Typically developing children between 36 and 72 months of age, primarily English speaking, were recruited from public preschools in Grenada. Trained Early Childhood Assessors administered the GLAMS and NEPSY-II in schools, homes, and clinics. GLAMS score distributions, reliability, and convergent/divergent validity against NEPSY-II were evaluated. RESULTS: The sample consisted of 400 children (190 males, 210 females). GLAMS internal consistency, inter-rater agreement, and test-retest reliability were acceptable. Principal components analysis revealed two latent factors, aligned with expected verbal/visual memory constructs. A female advantage was observed in verbal memory. Moderate age effects were observed on list learning/recall and small age effects on face-name learning/recall. All GLAMS subtests were correlated with NEPSY-II Sentence Repetition, supporting convergent validity with a measure of verbal working memory. CONCLUSIONS: The GLAMS is a psychometrically sound measure of learning and memory in Grenadian preschool children. Further adaptation and scale-up to global LMICs are recommended.

Adaptation of the INTERGROWTH-21st neurodevelopment assessment (INTER-NDA) to the context of the English-speaking Caribbean.

BACKGROUND: Adaptation of standardized early child development (ECD) assessments to low- and middle-income countries can be challenging because of culture-specific factors relating to language, content, context, and tool administration, and because the reliance of these tests on specialist healthcare professionals limits their scalability in low resource settings. METHODS: We report the cross-cultural adaptation of an international, standardized ECD instrument, the INTERGROWTH-21st Project Neurodevelopment Assessment (INTER-NDA), measuring cognitive, language, motor and behavioural outcomes in 2-year-olds, from a UK-based English-speaking population to the English-speaking Caribbean. Children aged 22-30 months were recruited from a pre-existing randomized controlled neurodevelopment intervention study in Grenada, West Indies. RESULTS: Eight of 37 INTER-NDA items (22%) were culturally and linguistically adapted for implementation in the Caribbean context. Protocol adherence across seven newly-trained non-specialist child development assessors was 89.9%; six of the seven assessors scored ≥80%. Agreement between the expert assessor and the non-specialist child development assessors was substantial (κ = 0.89 to 1.00 (95% CI [0.58, 1.00]). The inter-rater and test-retest reliability for non-specialist child development assessors was between κ = 0.99 -1.00 (95% CI [0.98, 0.99]) and κ = 0.76 - 1.00 (95% CI [0.33, 1.00]) across all INTER-NDA domains. CONCLUSIONS: The current study provides evidence to support the use of the adapted INTER-NDA by trained, non-specialist assessors to measure ECD prevalence in the English-speaking Caribbean. It also provides a methodological template for the adaptation of child developmental measures to cultural and linguistic contexts that conform to the cultural standards of the countries in which they are utilized to aid in the measurement of neurodevelopmental impairments (NDIs) in a variety of global clinical settings.

Mitigating medical student stress and anxiety: Should schools mandate participation in wellness intervention programs?

PURPOSE: Medical students are at increased risk of poor mental health and need to regularly engage in preventive programs to maintain well-being. However, many do not and it remains an open question whether these programs should be mandatory. We implemented a RCT to examine the effectiveness of assigning medical students to a wellness intervention on adherence to engagement in the assigned intervention and on psychological and academic outcomes. METHOD: Medical students participated in a 12-week randomized controlled intervention involving one-hour wellness sessions of either (1) yoga; (2) mindfulness; or (3) walking, held twice-weekly. Students completed standardized psychological assessments at baseline and following the intervention. RESULTS: Students randomized to the wellness intervention group engaged in more minutes of assigned activities than students randomized to the control. There was a significant difference in the change from pre- to post- intervention on measures of state anxiety and perceived stress, with better outcomes for the intervention group. CONCLUSIONS: The assignment of twice-weekly wellness intervention sessions protects medical students from state anxiety and perceived stress with no negative impact on academic performance. Students adhered to the sessions and reported enjoying the sessions once trying them. Actual engagement is more important than wellness activity type.

A Meta-Analysis of Hippocampal and Amygdala Volumes in Patients Diagnosed With Dissociative Identity Disorder.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), an illness characterized by multiple personality states, has long been a controversial diagnosis within the psychiatric community. Demonstrating a neuroanatomical basis for the disorder may help to resolve the controversy. Current literature on the neuroanatomy associated with DID has focused on the hippocampus and amygdala and are inconclusive. This meta-analysis pools the results from n = 3 studies to compare the mean size of these two structures between DID patients, non-DID patients, and healthy controls. Patients diagnosed with both DID & PTSD were found to have smaller hippocampi bilaterally (p< .001) compared to healthy controls; no significant difference was seen in the amygdala. When comparing DID to PTSD patients, the left hippocampus was smaller (p< .001), with a trend for a smaller right hippocampus (p = .06). A comparison of the amygdala was not possible due to a lack of data. These findings suggest that a smaller hippocampus is seen in DID patients beyond what is seen for PTSD, provides neuroanatomical evidence for the memory impairment often seen in DID patients (i.e., amnesia experienced by the host and alters), and presents a potentially novel means to understand this disorder.

Sexual Violence in America: Public Funding and Social Priority.

We compared lifetime risk, annual incidence, and annual economic burden of sexual violence with other major public health issues in the United States: cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. With public funding data from 2013, we examined how much public funding is allocated to these public health issues as a proxy of the social priority of addressing each of them. Although sexual violence is as prevalent as and more costly than are these other major public health issues, it receives a fraction of the public funds that they receive.

A third kind of episodic memory: Context familiarity is a distinct process from item familiarity and recollection.

Episodic memory is accounted for with two processes: 'familiarity' when generally recognizing an item and 'recollection' when retrieving the full contextual details bound with the item. Paradoxically, people sometimes report contextual information as familiar but without recollecting details, which is not easily accounted for by existing theories. We tested a combination of item recognition confidence and source memory, focusing upon 'item-only hits with source unknown' ('item familiarity'), 'low-confidence hits with correct source memory' ('context familiarity'), and 'high-confidence hits with correct source memory' ('recollection'). Results across multiple within-subjects (trial-wise) and between subjects (individual variability) levels indicated these were behaviorally and physiologically distinct. Behaviorally, a crossover interaction was evident in response times, with context familiarity being slower than each condition during item recognition, but faster during source memory. Electrophysiologically, a Condition x Time x Location triple dissociation was evident in event-related potentials (ERPs), which was then independently replicated. Context familiarity exhibited an independent negative central effect from 800-1200 ms, differentiated from positive ERPs for item-familiarity (400 to 600 ms) and recollection (600 to 900 ms). These three conditions thus reflect mutually exclusive, fundamentally different processes of episodic memory. Context familiarity is a third distinct process of episodic memory.

Spare the rod, spoil the child: measurement and learning from an intervention to shift corporal punishment attitudes and behaviors in Grenada, West Indies.

Childrearing practices in the Caribbean and other postcolonial states have long been associated with corporal punishment and are influenced by expectations of children for respectfulness and obedience. Evidence across settings shows that physical punishment of young children is both ineffective and detrimental. Saving Brains Grenada (SBG) implemented a pilot study of an intervention based on the Conscious Discipline curriculum that aimed to build adult caregivers' skills around non-violent child discipline. We hypothesized that attitudes towards corporal punishment would shift to be negative as adults learned more positive discipline methods, and that child neurodevelopment would correspondingly improve. This report reviews the impact of monitoring and evaluation on the design and implementation of the intervention. Study 1 presents findings from the pilot study. Despite positive gains in neurodevelopmental outcomes among children in the intervention compared to controls, attitudes towards corporal punishment and reported use of it did not change. Additionally, several internal conflicts in the measures used to assess corporal punishment behaviors and attitudes were identified. Study 2 is a response to learning from Study 1 and highlights the importance for monitoring and evaluation to be data-informed, adaptive, and culturally appropriate. In Study 2, the SBG research team conducted cognitive interviews and group discussions with stakeholders to assess the content and comprehensibility of the Attitudes Towards Corporal Punishment Scale (ACP). This yielded insights into the measurement of attitudes towards corporal punishment and related parenting behavior, and prompted several revisions to the ACP. To accurately evaluate the intervention's theory of change and its goal to reduce violence against children, reliable and appropriate measures of attitudes towards corporal punishment and punishment behaviors are needed. Together, these two studies emphasize the value of continuous monitoring, evaluation, and learning in the implementation, adaptation, evaluation, and scaling of SBG and similar early childhood development interventions.

Prevention of mental illness within public health: An analysis of progress via systematic literature review and a pathway forward.

Primary prevention is the cornerstone of public health. Prevention is especially important for chronic diseases of significant burden such as mental illnesses because many of them have limited treatment options, an onset in childhood or in adolescence, and are linked to adverse childhood experiences requiring a focus on early childhood and maternal-child health (MCH). Despite this need, there appears to be a paucity of research into prevention of mental illnesses within public health. To confirm this, we performed a systematic literature review to quantify the proportion of articles in public health that focus on prevention of mental illness versus intervention for these illnesses after their onset, and the proportion of published articles within MCH that focus on mental health. Between November 2019 and August 2021, we reviewed 211,794 published articles from 147 Scimago-ranked English public health journals with no limit on year of publication. As hypothesized, a very small portion (2.2%) of mental health articles included primary prevention and a small portion of MCH articles (7.8%) included mental health. These results are consistent with the existence of a research gap in mental illness prevention within the public health field. Given the early onset of mental illness, the importance of early childhood experiences in the later development of mental illness, and the importance of the social-emotional connection between mother and child for building resilience, public health professionals must incorporate evidence from the field of MCH to develop and assess more primary prevention programs for mental illness.

Factors Associated with Chikungunya Infection among Pregnant Women in Grenada, West Indies.

Neonates are vulnerable to vector-borne diseases given the potential for mother-to-child congenital transmission. To determine factors associated with chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection among pregnant women in Grenada, West Indies, a retrospective cohort study enrolled women who were pregnant during the 2014 CHIKV epidemic. In all, 520/688 women (75.5%) were CHIKV IgG positive. Low incomes, use of pit latrines, lack of home window screens, and subjective reporting of frequent mosquito bites were associated with increased risk of CHIKV infection in bivariate analyses. In the multivariate modified Poisson regression model, low income (adjusted relative risk [aRR]: 1.05 [95% CI: 1.01-1.10]) and frequent mosquito bites (aRR: 1.05 [95% CI: 1.01-1.10]) were linked to increased infection risk. In Grenada, markers of low socioeconomic status are associated with CHIKV infection among pregnant women. Given that Grenada will continue to face vector-borne outbreaks, interventions dedicated to improving living conditions of the most disadvantaged will help reduce the incidence of arboviral infections.

Does Intra-Uterine Exposure to the Zika Virus Increase Risks of Cognitive Delay at Preschool Ages? Findings from a Zika-Exposed Cohort from Grenada, West Indies.

Maternal infection with Zika virus (ZIKV) is associated with a distinct pattern of birth defects, known as congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). In ZIKV-exposed children without CZS, it is often unclear whether they were protected from in utero infection and neurotropism. Early neurodevelopmental assessment is essential for detecting neurodevelopmental delays (NDDs) and prioritizing at-risk children for early intervention. We compared neurodevelopmental outcomes between ZIKV-exposed and unexposed children at 1, 3 and 4 years to assess exposure-associated NDD risk. A total of 384 mother-child dyads were enrolled during a period of active ZIKV transmission (2016-2017) in Grenada, West Indies. Exposure status was based on laboratory assessment of prenatal and postnatal maternal serum. Neurodevelopment was assessed using the Oxford Neurodevelopment Assessment, the NEPSY® Second Edition and Cardiff Vision Tests, at 12 (n = 66), 36 (n = 58) and 48 (n = 59) months, respectively. There were no differences in NDD rates or vision scores between ZIKV-exposed and unexposed children. Rates of microcephaly at birth (0.88% vs. 0.83%, p = 0.81), and childhood stunting and wasting did not differ between groups. Our results show that Grenadian ZIKV-exposed children, the majority of whom were without microcephaly, had similar neurodevelopmental outcomes to unexposed controls up to at least an age of 4 years.

A Community-based Responsive Caregiving Program Improves Neurodevelopment in Two-year Old Children in a Middle-Income Country, Grenada, West Indies.

Many young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are at risk of developmental delays. Early child development (ECD) interventions have been shown to improve outcomes, but few interventions have targeted culturally normative violence such as corporal punishment (CP). We partnered with an existing community-based ECD organization in the LMIC of Grenada to implement a parallel controlled-trial single-blind responsive caregiving intervention that educates parents about the developing brain and teaches alternatives to corporal punishment while building parental self-regulation skills and strengthening social-emotional connections between parent and child. Parents and primary caregivers with children under age two were eligible. Allocation to the intervention and waitlist control arms was unblinded and determined by recruitment into the program. Neurodevelopment was assessed by blinded testers when each child turned age two. Primary comparison consisted of neurodevelopmental scores between the intervention and waitlist control groups (Clinicaltrials.gov registration # NCT04697134). Secondary comparison consisted of changes in maternal mental health, home environment, and attitudes towards CP. Children in the intervention group (n = 153) had significantly higher scores than children in the control group (n = 151) on measures of cognition (p = .022), fine motor (p < .0001), gross motor (p = .015), and language development (p = .013). No difference in secondary outcomes, including CP, was detected.

Muchos niños en países de renta media y baja corren el riesgo de sufrir retrasos en el desarrollo. Las intervenciones en periodos tempranos del desarrollo infantil pueden mejorar sus resultados, pero pocas de ellas abordan la violencia culturalmente normativa, como el castigo corporal. En asociación con una organización comunitaria que trabajaba en el ámbito del desarrollo infantil temprano en Granada se llevó a cabo una intervención paralela de parentalidad responsiva mediante un ensayo controlado de simple-ciego con el fin de educar a los padres sobre el cerebro en desarrollo y alternativas al castigo corporal, a la vez que les enseñaban destrezas de autorregulación y se fortalecían los vínculos socioemocionales entre padres e hijos. Para ello se eligieron padres y cuidadores primarios de niños menores de dos años. La asignación a los grupos de intervención y lista de espera de control no fue ciega, estando determinada por el reclutamiento al programa. El desarrollo neurológico fue evaluado a ciegas cuando el niño cumplía dos años. La comparación primaria constaba de puntuaciones en neurodesarrollo entre los grupos intervención y lista de espera de control (Clinicaltrials.gov registration # NCT04697134). La comparación secundaria constaba de cambios en la salud mental materna, entorno del hogar y actitudes hacia el castigo corporal. Los niños en el grupo de intervención (n = 153) tenían puntuaciones significativamente superiores a las de los niños del grupo control (n = 151) en las medidas de cognición (p = .022), motricidad fina (p < .0001), motricidad gruesa (p = .015) y desarrollo del lenguaje (p = .013). No se encontraron diferencias en los resultados secundarios, entre los que se incluía el castigo corporal.

Academic and Social Impact of Menstrual Disturbances in Female Medical Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The stressful academic schedule of medical students poses an obvious challenge to their daily lifestyle. Psychosomatic discomfort poses a significant risk for inaccurate self-medication for ameliorating menstrual complications and feeling better, thus directly impacting personal and academic wellbeing. OBJECTIVE: The impact of menstrual disturbances on academic life is not extensively explored. Therefore, the primary objective of this research was to probe the prevalence of menstrual disturbances and assess the academic and social impact. Finally, the authors provide an overview of pharmacological and other interventions students adopt to reduce clinical symptoms. METHODS: A database search was conducted from the year 2016 till September 2021 for the studies reporting the prevalence of menstrual disorders in all geographic locations of the world. Keywords used for searching databases included "menstrual disturbances" and "medical students," "prevalence" OR "symptoms" of "Premenstrual syndrome" OR "Premenstrual dysphoric disorder" OR "Dysmenorrhea" in medical students. Prospero Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) protocols were followed. The protocol was registered in the International prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO), the Center for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York (CRD42021277962). The quality of the methodologies used in selected studies was evaluated by a modified version of Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS). RESULTS: Initially, 1527 articles were available. After a review, 26 papers were selected for analysis. A total of 25 citations were identified for quantitative analyses, out of which 16 studies reported Pre-menstrual syndrome, 7 reported Pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder, and 13 articles reported dysmenorrhea. The pooled prevalence of Pre-menstrual syndrome was 51.30%, Pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder was 17.7%, and dysmenorrhea was 72.70%. Most common associated lifestyle factors were stress, excessive caffeine intake and lack of exercise. Painkillers, hot packs and hot beverages were amongst the common measures taken by the students to relieve their symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The current situation calls for action to accommodate students' needs and bridge the social gap regarding menstrual health. Proactive measures by medical educators and stakeholders are required for an inclusive, accommodating educational environment which will minimize the gender discrepancy in academic satisfaction and professional life.

Improving neurodevelopment in Zika-exposed children: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: While microcephaly is a significant adverse outcome of prenatal exposure to the Zika virus (ZIKV), subtle malformations of cortical development (MCD) have been observed in Zika-exposed children (ZEC), including delays in language, cognition, and motor domains, and visual acuity deficits. Interventions within the first 1,000 days of life can significantly improve developmental outcomes. This study examined a 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention on neurodevelopmental outcomes in 24-30-month-old ZEC. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A randomized controlled trial was implemented in Grenada, West Indies using an existing ZIKV cohort surveillance study. When children in that study turned 24 months, baseline child neurodevelopmental measures and caregiver interviews were administered. Caregivers who agreed to participate in the 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention, implemented when children were 24-30 months of age, were randomly assigned to the Intervention or Waitlist Control group. Children in both groups were re-assessed on the neurodevelopmental measures post-intervention. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: 233 children from the ZIKV surveillance study met inclusion criteria, of which n = 80 declined participation, n = 42 did not complete the Intervention, and n = 72 missed follow-up assessments given strict timelines in the study design. The final sample for analysis was N = 13 children in the Intervention group and N = 26 children in the Control group. A GEE model analysis showed significantly higher language (p = 0.021) and positive behaviour (p = 0.005) scores for children in the Intervention group compared to the Control group. The Intervention had a medium effect on child language (d = 0.66) and a large effect on positive behaviour (d = 0.83). A 12-week Responsive Caregiving Intervention Programme significantly improves language and positive behaviour scores in 30-month-old normocephalic children who were exposed to ZIKV in utero. The programme provides an option for mothers of ZIKV-exposed children who are seeking an evidence-based neurodevelopmental intervention regardless of known impact of the virus on cortical formation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04697147).

Neurodevelopment in normocephalic children with and without prenatal Zika virus exposure.

OBJECTIVE: Zika virus (ZIKV) targets neural stem cells in the developing brain. However, the majority of ZIKV-exposed children are born without apparent neurological manifestations. It remains unclear if these children were protected from ZIKV neurotropism or if they harbour subtle pathology that is disruptive to brain development. We assess this by comparing neurodevelopmental outcomes in normocephalic ZIKV-exposed children relative to a parallel control group of unexposed controls. DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING: Public health centres in Grenada, West Indies. PATIENTS: 384 mother-child pairs were enrolled during a period of active ZIKV transmission (April 2016-March 2017) and prospectively followed up to 30 months. Child exposure status was based on laboratory assessment of prenatal and postnatal maternal serum. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The INTERGROWTH-21st Neurodevelopment Assessment (INTER-NDA) package and Cardiff Vision Tests, administered and scored by research staff masked to child's exposure status. RESULTS: A total of 131 normocephalic ZIKV exposed (n=68) and unexposed (n=63) children were assessed between 22 and 30 months of age. Approximately half of these children completed vision testing. There were no group differences in sociodemographics. Deficits in visual acuity (31%) and contrast sensitivity (23%) were apparent in the ZIKV-exposed infants in the absence of cognitive, motor, language or behavioural delays. CONCLUSIONS: Overall neurodevelopment is likely to be unaffected in ZIKV-exposed children with normal head circumference at birth and normal head growth in the first 2 years of life. However, the visual system may be selectively vulnerable, which indicates the need for vision testing by 3 years of age.

Yoga for Healthy Aging: Science or Hype?

Yoga, one of the world's oldest health systems is receiving new attention for claims that it can contribute to healthy aging. Until recently, scientific evidence for its efficacy has relied heavily on small and poorly-designed research, but this is changing. Multiple, well-designed studies provide data showing that yoga practice has positive effects on cellular aging, mobility, balance, mental health, and prevention of cognitive decline-all areas of concern for older adults. Since the cost of implementing yoga-based community and home-based interventions is low-policymakers are also eyeing yoga practice as a cost-effective way to reduce medical costs and improve outcomes among a growing aging population. This commentary reviews the evidence for both physical and mental health benefits from yoga, as well as concerns about injuries that have been associated with certain types of yoga practice. It reveals a surprising range of yoga programs and difficulty levels that provide opportunities for almost anyone to participate and gain health benefits with practice.

A Systematic Review of Severe Neurological Manifestations in Pediatric Patients with Coexisting SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in children produces mild respiratory symptoms or no symptoms at all in most cases. Some pediatric patients develop a severe complication associated with high mortality, the multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). In both scenarios, there are reports of neurological manifestations. This article aims to review the cases of pediatric patients with severe neurological issues and a coexisting positive SARS-CoV-2 test. A literature search was performed between March 2020 and May 2021. The results included the data from 41 studies, with 159 children with severe neurological manifestations, within an age range from 24 h to 17 years. The neurological disorders included 38 cases with stroke, 32 with encephalitis, 22 with encephalopathy, and 10 with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Sixty-five out of 159 cases with severe neurological manifestations were diagnosed with MIS-C. Direct neuroinvasion and the exaggerated immune response in some patients seem to be the most critical factors triggering these manifestations. Further research in the ongoing pandemic is needed to elucidate the precise mechanism.

Focal epilepsy features in a child with Congenital Zika Syndrome.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded DNA flavivirus that is teratogenic and neurotropic. Similar to the teratogenic effects of other TORCH infections, ZIKV infection during pregnancy can have an adverse impact on fetal and neonatal development. Epilepsy is detected in 48-96% of children with Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) and microcephaly. Early epilepsy surveillance is needed in children with prenatal ZIKV exposure; yet, most ZIKV-endemic regions do not have specialist epilepsy care. Here, we describe the demographic, clinical, imaging, and EEG characteristics of a 2-year-old child with CZS and microcephaly who presented with focal epileptiform activity, suboptimal growth, and severe neurodevelopmental delays. Administration of a brief seizure questionnaire by allied health professionals to the patient's caregiver helped to characterize the child's seizure semiology and differentiate focal from generalized seizure features. A telemedicine EEG interpretation platform provided valuable diagnostic information for the patient's local pediatrician to integrate into her treatment plan. This case illustrates that CZS can present with focal epilepsy features and that a telemedicine approach can be used to bridge the gap between epilepsy specialists and local care providers in resource limited ZIKV-endemic regions to achieve better seizure control in children with CZS.

Pre and postnatal exposure to Chikungunya virus does not affect child neurodevelopmental outcomes at two years of age.

BACKGROUND: The 2005-06 chikungunya virus (CHIKV) outbreak in La Réunion suggested that mothers could transmit CHIKV to their neonates while viremic during the intrapartum period, and more than half of the infected neonates showed impaired neurodevelopment at two years of age. However, data sparsity precluded an overview of the developmental impact of vertical infection within the whole prenatal period. OBJECTIVE & METHODS: The current study assessed two-year old children born to mothers who were infected during the 2014 CHIKV outbreak in Grenada to determine the neurodevelopmental impact of perinatal CHIKV infection throughout gestation. Mother and child infection status were confirmed by serologic testing (IgG and IgM) for CHIKV. Cognitive, fine motor, gross motor, language and behavioral outcomes were assessed at two years of age on the INTERGROWTH-21st Neurodevelopment Assessment (INTER-NDA). RESULTS: No differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes were observed between two-year-old children born to mothers infected with CHIKV during gestation (n = 149) and those born to mothers not infected with CHIKV (n = 161). No differences were found in INTER-NDA scores between children infected with CHIKV (n = 47) and children not infected with CHIKV (n = 592). Likewise, there were no differences between children infected with CHIKV post-partum (n = 19) versus children not infected with CHIKV (n = 592). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that children exposed and/or infected with CHIKV outside of the intrapartum period experience no significant neurodevelopmental delay at two years of age, as measured by the INTER-NDA, compared to their unexposed and/or uninfected peers. These results complement those of previous studies which showed a neurodevelopmental risk only for children infected during the intrapartum period, while the mother was highly viremic. These results might be reassuring for women of childbearing age and public health officials in CHIKV-endemic regions.