Which Improvised Tourniquet Windlasses Work Well and Which Ones Won't?

OBJECTIVE: Improvised tourniquets in first aid are recommended when no scientifically designed tourniquet is available. Windlasses for mechanical advantage can be a stick or pencil and can be used singly or multiply in tightening a tourniquet band, but currently there is an absence of empiric knowledge of how well such windlasses work. The purpose of the present study was to determine the performance of improvised tourniquets in their use by the type and number of windlasses to improve tourniquet practice. METHODS: A simulated Leg Tourniquet Trainer was used as a manikin thigh to test the effectiveness of improvised tourniquets of a band-and-windlass design. Two users made 20 tests each with 3 types of windlasses. Tests started with 1 representative of a given type (eg, 1 pencil), then continued with increasing numbers of each windlass type until the user reached 100% effectiveness as determined by cessation of simulated blood flow. Windlass types included chopsticks, pencils, and craft sticks. RESULTS: Effectiveness percentages in stopping bleeding were associated inversely with breakage percentages. Pulse stoppage percentages were associated inversely with breakage. The windlass turn numbers, time to stop bleeding, the number of windlasses, and the under-tourniquet pressure were associated inversely with breakage. The windlass type was associated with breakage; at 2 windlasses, only chopsticks were without breakage. Of those windlass types that broke, 20.7% were chopsticks, 26.1% were pencils, and 53.2% were craft sticks. CONCLUSIONS: A pair of chopsticks as an improvised tourniquet windlass worked better than pencils or craft sticks.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the 2008 Postsplenectomy Vaccination Joint Theater Trauma System Clinical Practice Guideline.

OBJECTIVES: Postsplenectomy vaccination (PSV) in an austere environment to minimize overwhelming postsplenectomy infection is challenging. We evaluated the clinical impact of a March 2008 clinical practice guideline (CPG) dictating immediate PSV at North American Treaty Organization Role 3 medical treatment facilities and subsequent complications. METHODS: Utilizing U.S. military medical databases, we characterized all U.S. patients with a splenic injury from November 2002 to January 2012 by their surgical management: laparotomy with splenectomy (LWS), laparotomy without splenectomy, or nonoperative management. Relevant data including demographics, vaccinations, and documented bacterial and fungal isolates were obtained. RESULTS: LWS comprised 63.6% of the 409 patients with a splenic injury from 2002 to 2012. The implementation of the PSV CPG improved overall vaccination compliance from 48.9% pre-PSV CPG to 86.9% post-PSV CPG (p < 0.01). It was found that 1.3% (2/159) of completely vaccinated LWS patients compared with 0% (0/101) of the incompletely vaccinated LWS patients had Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in 391.0 and 251.4 follow-up years, respectively (p = 0.52). No Neisseria meningitidis or Haemophilus influenzae isolates were identified. CONCLUSIONS: PSV CPG implementation improved theater vaccination without increasing the incidence of encapsulated organisms.

Pathogens present in acute mangled extremities from Afghanistan and subsequent pathogen recovery.

Given the changing epidemiology of infecting pathogens in combat casualties, we evaluated bacteria and fungi in acute traumatic wounds from Afghanistan. From January 2013 to February 2014, 14 mangled lower extremities from 10 explosive-device injured casualties were swabbed for culture at Role 3 facilities. Bacteria were recovered from all patients on the date of injury. Pathogens recovered during routine patient care were recorded. The median injury severity score was 29, median initial Role 3/4 blood product support was 32 units, and median evacuation time was 42 minutes to first surgical care. Gram-positive bacteria were found in some wounds but not methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. Most wounds were colonized with low-virulence, environmental gram-negative bacteria, and not recovered again during therapy, reflecting wound contamination. Only one wound had the same bacteria (E. cloacae) throughout care at the Role 3, 4, and 5 facilities. Three cultures from two patients had multidrug-resistant bacteria (E. cloacae, E. coli), all detected at Role 5 facilities. Molds were not detected at Role 3, whereas one patient had a mold at Role 4 and 5. Mangled lower extremity injuries have a high contamination rate with environmental organisms, which are not typically associated with infections during the course of the patient's care.

Nonoperative management of splenic injury in combat: 2002-2012.

BACKGROUND: Selective nonoperative management of combat-related blunt splenic injury (BSI) is controversial. We evaluated the impact of the November 2008 blunt abdominal trauma clinical practice guideline that permitted selective nonoperative management of some patients with radiological suggestion of hemoperitoneum on implementation of nonoperative management (NOM) of splenic injury in austere environments. METHODS: Retrospective evaluation of patients with splenic injuries from November 2002 through January 2012 in Iraq and Afghanistan was performed. International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification procedure codes identified patients as laparotomy with splenectomy, or NOM. Delayed operative management had no operative intervention at earlier North American Treaty Organization (NATO) medical treatment facilities (MTFs), and had a definitive intervention at a latter NATO MTFs. Intra-abdominal complications and overall mortality were juxtaposed. RESULTS: A total of 433 patients had splenic injuries from 2002 to 2012. Initial NOM of BSI from 2002 to 2008 compared to 2009-2012 was 44.1% and 47.2%, respectively (p=0.75). Delayed operative management and NOM completion had intra-abdominal complication and mortality rates of 38.1% and 9.1% (p<0.01), and 6.3% and 8.1% (p=0.77). CONCLUSIONS: Despite high-energy explosive injuries, NATO Role II MTFs radiological constraints and limited medical resources, hemodynamically normal patients with BSI and low abdominal abbreviated injury scores underwent NOM in austere environments.

An 8-year review of operation enduring freedom and operation iraqi freedom resuscitative thoracotomies.

BACKGROUND: Appropriate indications for resuscitative thoracotomy (RT) in an austere environment continue to evolve; the aim of this study was to determine survival and to analyze demographics of survivors within U.S. military personnel undergoing RT. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of all U.S. soldiers who underwent thoracotomy in theater during Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. After individualized review, patients in extremis or who lost pulses and had their thoracotomy performed within 10 minutes of arrival to the emergency department were included. The primary outcome was survival at final hospital discharge, and secondary outcomes included demographics associated with survival. RESULTS: Between January 2003 and May 2010, 81 U.S. military personnel met inclusion criteria for RT in theater. As low as 6.7% (3/45) of patients receiving prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation were alive at final hospital discharge. Survival from RT after explosive/blast injury, penetrating (gunshot wound), and blunt trauma were 16.3% (8/49), 0% (0/28), and 0% (0/4), respectively. Patients with primary explosive/blast extremity trauma undergoing RT had a survival of 27.3% (6/22). Higher initial oxygen saturations, larger volume of crystalloids and blood products infused, and higher extremity abbreviated injury score were all associated with survival. CONCLUSIONS: Combat casualties who present pulseless or in extremis who were injured as a result of an explosive/blast injury mechanism resulting in a primary extremity injury may have a survival benefit from undergoing a RT in an austere environment.

Emergency tourniquet effectiveness in four positions on the proximal thigh.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study is to determine the performance of tourniquet use by the placement of the tourniquet's windlass on the extremity in four positions--medial, lateral, anterior, and posterior--to inform tourniquet instructors and develop best tourniquet practices. METHODS: A HapMed™ Leg Tourniquet Trainer was used as a manikin to test the effectiveness of an emergency tourniquet, the Special Operations Forces Tactical Tourniquet. Two users made 10 tests, each in four positions. RESULTS: Effectiveness rates of tourniquet use were 100% in all four positions. The two tourniquet users were both right-hand dominant and used their right hand to turn the windlass. One user turned the windlass clockwise, and the other turned it counterclockwise. The association between time to stop bleeding and tourniquet position was statistically significant but associations between time to stop bleeding and the user, user-by-position, and windlass turn number were not statistically significant. The association between tourniquet position and pressure under the tourniquet was statistically significant, and the association between user and pressure under the tourniquet was statistically significant, but the user-by-position and windlass turn number were not statistically significant. The associations between tourniquet position and blood loss volume, user and blood loss volume, and user-by-position and blood loss volume were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The present study found that tourniquet effectiveness rates were uniformly 100% irrespective of whether the windlass position was medial, lateral, anterior, or posterior. These excellent clinical and statistical results indicate that users may continue to place the tourniquets as they prefer upon the proximal thigh.

Thoracic injuries in US combat casualties: a 10-year review of Operation Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom.

BACKGROUND: Mortality from thoracic injuries has declined significantly from 63% in the Civil War to 3% in Vietnam. We reviewed the injury patterns, procedures, blood products, and mortality of US soldiers sustaining a thoracic injury during Operation Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF). METHODS: Data on US soldiers with a thoracic injury during OEF/OIF from January 2003 to May 2011 was collected from the Joint Theater Trauma Registry. Coalition forces, civilians, and soldiers killed in action were excluded. Injuries and procedures were identified using DRG International Classification of Diseases-9th Rev. and Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) codes. Data are presented as mean (SD). Statistical analysis used χ analysis and t test where appropriate. RESULTS: Thoracic injuries occurred in 2,049 of 23,797 wounded US military personnel for a prevalence of 8.6%. Mean (SD) age was 26 (6.6) years, and mean (SD) chest AIS score was 2.9 (0.9). Penetrating trauma was the most common mechanism of injury (61.5%), and explosive devices were the most common cause of injury (61.9%). Of 6,030 thoracic injuries identified, pneumothorax and pulmonary contusions were most common (51.8% and 50.2%, respectively). Of 1,541 surgical procedures performed in theater, the most common was tube thoracostomy (47.1%). Most patients with penetrating fragmentation injuries (84%) were managed with tube thoracostomy as sole therapeutic intervention. The fresh frozen plasma-to-packed red blood cells ratio was 0.86. Overall mortality was 8.3%. Acute respiratory distress syndrome and inhalation injury were associated with mortality (p < 0.006). CONCLUSION: Most penetrating fragmentation injuries can be managed with tube thoracostomy. Mortality of patients with chest injury in OEF/OIF is higher than in Korea and Vietnam. This most likely represents advances in prehospital care, personal protective equipment, and rapid transport that have resulted in more severely injured patients arriving alive to a medical facility. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic study, level IV.

Evaluation of potential environmental contamination sources for the presence of multidrug-resistant bacteria linked to wound infections in combat casualties.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether multidrug-resistant (MDR) gram-negative organisms are present in Afghanistan or Iraq soil samples, contaminate standard deployed hospital or modular operating rooms (ORs), or aerosolize during surgical procedures. DESIGN: Active surveillance. SETTING: US military hospitals in the United States, Afghanistan, and Iraq. METHODS: Soil samples were collected from sites throughout Afghanistan and Iraq and analyzed for presence of MDR bacteria. Environmental sampling of selected newly established modular and deployed OR high-touch surfaces and equipment was performed to determine the presence of bacterial contamination. Gram-negative bacteria aerosolization during OR surgical procedures was determined by microbiological analysis of settle plate growth. RESULTS: Subsurface soil sample isolates recovered in Afghanistan and Iraq included various pansusceptible members of Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio species, Pseudomonas species, Acinetobacter lwoffii, and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CNS). OR contamination studies in Afghanistan revealed 1 surface with a Micrococcus luteus. Newly established US-based modular ORs and the colocated fixed-facility ORs revealed no gram-negative bacterial contamination prior to the opening of the modular OR and 5 weeks later. Bacterial aerosolization during surgery in a deployed fixed hospital revealed a mean gram-negative bacteria colony count of 12.8 colony-forming units (CFU)/dm(2)/h (standard deviation [SD], 17.0) during surgeries and 6.5 CFU/dm(2)/h (SD, 7.5; [Formula: see text]) when the OR was not in use. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates no significant gram-negative bacilli colonization of modular and fixed-facility ORs or dirt and no significant aerosolization of these bacilli during surgical procedures. These results lend additional support to the role of nosocomial transmission of MDR pathogens or the colonization of the patient themselves prior to injury.