Transplantation of PC1/3-Expressing alpha-cells improves glucose handling and cold tolerance in leptin-resistant mice.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is characterized by elevated blood glucose levels owing to insufficient secretion and/or activity of the glucose-lowering hormone insulin. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) has received much attention as a new treatment for diabetes because of its multiple blood glucose-lowering effects, including glucose-dependent enhancement of insulin secretion, inhibition of gastric emptying, and promotion of the survival and growth of insulin-producing beta-cells. GLP-1, along with GLP-2 and oxyntomodulin, is produced in the intestinal L-cell via processing of proglucagon by prohormone convertase 1/3 (PC1/3), while in the pancreatic alpha-cell, coexpression of proglucagon and the alternate enzyme PC2 typically results in differential processing of proglucagon to yield glucagon. We used alginate-encapsulated alpha-cells as a model to evaluate continuous delivery of PC1/3- or PC2-derived proglucagon products. In high fat-fed and db/db mice, PC1/3-, but not PC2-expressing alpha-cells improved glucose handling and transiently lowered fasting glucose levels, suggesting that continuous delivery of PC1/3-derived proglucagon products via cell therapy may be useful for diabetes treatment. In addition, we show that long-term treatment with PC1/3-expressing, but not PC2-expressing, alpha-cells improved cold-induced thermogenesis in db/db mice, demonstrating a previously unappreciated effect of one or more PC1/3-derived alpha-cell products.

Technology insight: microarrays--research and clinical applications.

For microarrays, the transition from research to clinical and diagnostic applications is well underway. Microarrays use a range of specific probes that are immobilized in known locations on a support matrix; this technique can measure levels of specific DNA, RNA and proteins, as well as carbohydrates and lipids. It is anticipated that analysis of these levels will lead to identification of biomarkers for the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of a wide range of diseases. So far, this type of analysis has been particularly useful in clinical oncology, but the technology is being actively and successfully explored for diseases such as diabetes, endocrine tumors and endocrine modulators of tumors. There are now many commercial sources of microarrays, which have robust quality-control procedures in place. Progress will be enhanced when biomarkers can be established, statistical approaches can be refined and when we better understand the interactions of genes and of particular gene loci in disease progression.

Glucagon replacement via micro-osmotic pump corrects hypoglycemia and alpha-cell hyperplasia in prohormone convertase 2 knockout mice.

Prohormone convertase 2 (PC2) plays an essential role in the processing of proglucagon to mature active glucagon in pancreatic alpha-cells (J Biol Chem 276:27197-27202, 2001). Mice lacking PC2 demonstrate multiple defects, including chronic mild hypoglycemia and dramatic hyperplasia of the pancreatic alpha-cells. To define the contribution of mature glucagon deficiency to the hypoglycemia and alpha-cell hyperplasia, we have attempted to correct the defects by delivery of exogenous glucagon by micro-osmotic pumps. Intraperitoneal delivery of 0.5 microg glucagon/h in PC2(-/-) mice resulted in the normalization of blood glucose concentrations. Islet remodeling through the loss of hyperplastic alpha-cells was evident by day 11 after pump implantation; by 25 days postimplantation, PC2(-/-) islets were indistinguishable from wild-type islets. These rapid changes were brought about by induction of apoptosis in the alpha-cell population. Morphological normalization of islets was also accompanied by marked downregulation of endogenous preproglucagon gene expression, but with little or no change in the level of preproinsulin gene expression. Exogenous glucagon delivery also normalized hepatic expression of the gluconeogenic enzyme PEPCK. These results demonstrate that the lack of mature glucagon in PC2(-/-) mice is responsible for the aberrant blood glucose levels, islet morphology, and gene expression, and they confirm the role of glucagon as a tonic insulin antagonist in regulating glycemia.

Pim3 negatively regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion.

Pancreatic ß-cell response to glucose stimulation is governed by tightly regulated signaling pathways which have not been fully characterized. A screen for novel signaling intermediates identified Pim3 as a glucose-responsive gene in the ß cell, and here, we characterize its role in the regulation of ß-cell function. Pim3 expression in the ß-cell was first observed through microarray analysis on glucose-stimulated murine insulinoma (MIN6) cells where expression was strongly and transiently induced. In the pancreas, Pim3 expression exhibited similar dynamics and was restricted to the ß cell. Perturbation of Pim3 function resulted in enhanced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, both in MIN6 cells and in isolated islets from Pim3-/- mice, where the augmentation was specifically seen in the second phase of secretion. Consequently, Pim3-/- mice displayed an increased glucose tolerance in vivo. Interestingly, Pim3-/- mice also exhibited increased insulin sensitivity. Glucose stimulation of isolated Pim3-/- islets resulted in increased phosphorylation of ERK1/2, a kinase involved in regulating ß-cell response to glucose. Pim3 was also found to physically interact with SOCS6 and SOCS6 levels were strongly reduced in Pim3-/- islets. Overexpression of SOCS6 inhibited glucose-induced ERK1/2 activation, strongly suggesting that Pim3 regulates ERK1/2 activity through SOCS6. These data reveal that Pim3 is a novel glucose-responsive gene in the ß cell that negatively regulates insulin secretion by inhibiting the activation of ERK1/2, and through its effect on insulin sensitivity, has potentially a more global function in glucose homeostasis.

A switch from prohormone convertase (PC)-2 to PC1/3 expression in transplanted alpha-cells is accompanied by differential processing of proglucagon and improved glucose homeostasis in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels by stimulating hepatic glucose production, is produced in alpha-cells via cleavage of proglucagon by prohormone convertase (PC)-2. In the enteroendocrine L-cell, proglucagon is differentially processed by the alternate enzyme PC1/3 to yield glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1, GLP-2, and oxyntomodulin, which have blood glucose-lowering effects. We hypothesized that alteration of PC expression in alpha-cells might convert the alpha-cell from a hyperglycemia-promoting cell to one that would improve glucose homeostasis. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We compared the effect of transplanting encapsulated PC2-expressing alpha TC-1 cells with PC1/3-expressing alpha TCDeltaPC2 cells in normal mice and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-treated mice. RESULTS: Transplantation of PC2-expressing alpha-cells increased plasma glucagon levels and caused mild fasting hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, and alpha-cell hypoplasia. In contrast, PC1/3-expressing alpha-cells increased plasma GLP-1/GLP-2 levels, improved glucose tolerance, and promoted beta-cell proliferation. In GLP-1R(-/-) mice, the ability of PC1/3-expressing alpha-cells to improve glucose tolerance was attenuated. Transplantation of PC1/3-expressing alpha-cells prevented STZ-induced hyperglycemia by preserving beta-cell area and islet morphology, possibly via stimulating beta-cell replication. However, PC2-expressing alpha-cells neither prevented STZ-induced hyperglycemia nor increased beta-cell proliferation. Transplantation of alpha TCDeltaPC2, but not alpha TC-1 cells, also increased intestinal epithelial proliferation. CONCLUSIONS: Expression of PC1/3 rather than PC2 in alpha-cells induces GLP-1 and GLP-2 production and converts the alpha-cell from a hyperglycemia-promoting cell to one that lowers blood glucose levels and promotes islet survival. This suggests that alteration of proglucagon processing in the alpha-cell may be therapeutically useful in the context of diabetes.

Shb promotes blood vessel formation in embryoid bodies by augmenting vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 and platelet-derived growth factor receptor-beta signaling.

The mechanisms controlling blood vessel formation during early embryonal development have only partly been elucidated. Shb is an adaptor protein previously implicated in the angiogenic response to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). To elucidate a possible role of Shb in embryonic vascular development, wild-type and SH2 domain mutated (R522K) Shb were overexpressed in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells. Embryoid bodies (EBs) differentiating from Shb-overexpressing ES cells in vitro were stained for CD31 or VEGFR-2 to visualize the formation of vascular structures. We found that Shb promotes the outgrowth of blood vessels in EBs both in the absence and presence of growth factors. This response may be the consequence of an increased number of VEGFR-2 positive cells at an early stage of EB development, a finding corroborated by both immunostaining and real-time RT-PCR. In addition, Shb overexpression upregulated the expression of PDGFR-beta, CD31, CD41 and Tal1. Cells co-expressing VEGFR-2 and PDGFR-beta were commonly observed when Shb was overexpressed and inhibition of PDGF-BB signaling reduced the amount of VEGFR-2 mRNA under these conditions. EBs expressing the Shb R522K-mutant did not form vascular structures. Microarray analysis of VEGFR-2/CD31 positive cells after 6 days of differentiation revealed numerous changes of expression of genes relating to an endothelial/hematopoietic phenotype in response to Shb overexpression. The findings suggest that Shb may play a crucial role during early ES cell differentiation to vascular structures by transducing VEGFR-2 and PDGFR-beta signals.

Altered proglucagon processing in an alpha-cell line derived from prohormone convertase 2 null mouse islets.

The endoproteolytic processing of proproteins in the secretory pathway depends on the expression of selected members of a family of subtilisin-like endoproteases known as the prohormone convertases (PCs). The main PC family members expressed in mammalian neuroendocrine cells are PC2 and PC1/3. The differential processing of proglucagon in pancreatic alpha-cells and intestinal L cells leads to production of distinct hormonal products with opposing physiological effects from the same precursor. Here we describe the establishment and characterization of a novel alpha-cell line (alphaTC-DeltaPC2) derived from PC2 homozygous null animals. The alphaTC-DeltaPC2 cells are shown to be similar to the well characterized alphaTC1-6 cell line in both morphology and overall gene expression. However, the absence of PC2 activity in alphaTC-DeltaPC2 leads to a complete block in the production of mature glucagon. Surprisingly, alphaTC-DeltaPC2 cells are able to efficiently cleave the interdomain site in proglucagon (KR 70-71). Further analysis reveals that alphaTC-DeltaPC2 cells, unlike alphaTC1-6 cells, express low levels of PC1/3 that lead to the generation of glicentin as well as low amounts of oxyntomodulin, GLP-1, truncated GLP-1, and N-terminally extended GLP-2. We conclude that alphaTC-DeltaPC2 cells provide additional evidence for PC2 as the major convertase in alpha-cells leading to mature glucagon production and provide a robust model for further analysis of the mechanisms of proprotein processing by the prohormone convertases.