Alcohol's Effects on Bystander Intervention Strategies to Prevent Sexual Assault.

Alcohol's effects on bystander responses to potential sexual assault situations are understudied. In this mixed-methods study, we examined quality of bystander responses in intoxicated versus sober people. Participants were 121 young adults (ages 21-29, 50% female) randomly assigned to consume alcoholic beverages or soda water. After drinking, participants listened to a sexual assault vignette and completed a semistructured interview assessing how they would respond if they had witnessed the situation. Nearly all participants reported they would directly intervene if faced with the situation. Intoxicated participants and men were significantly less likely to use high-quality bystander intervention strategies than were sober participants and women. Results suggest that alcohol intoxication may negatively impact the likelihood that bystander intervention efforts will be helpful.

Validation of the Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Revised Using Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Narratives of Sexual Violence.

Lesbian and bisexual women have high rates of sexual violence compared to heterosexual women, yet prevalence rates vary widely across studies. The Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Revised (SES-SFV) is the most commonly used method of measuring sexual assault and rape prevalence, but it has not been validated in this high-risk population of lesbian and bisexual women. The current study assessed a modified form of the SES-SFV utilizing a five-step, mixed-methods approach. Women (N = 1382) who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%) completed an online survey disseminated through Qualtrics Online Survey Company to a national audience. All types of non-consensual behaviors (non-penetrative, oral, vaginal, and anal) and nearly all perpetration tactics in the original SES-SFV emerged inductively in our qualitative data. Using quantitative data, lesbian and bisexual victims endorsed each perpetration tactic in the SES-SFV at comparable rates to heterosexual victims. SES-SFV's false-positive categorization was minimal. However, the original SES-SFV did not capture some common experiences that participants described in their open-ended narratives. The SES-SFV satisfactorily assesses sexual assault and rape experiences in lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. Possible additions and deletions to the SES-SFV are presented alongside discussion of managing comprehensiveness and participant fatigue.

The Influence of Partner Status and Sexual Behavior on College Women's Consent Communication and Feelings.

The topic of sexual consent has permeated mainstream discourse as a mechanism used to decrease rates of sexual assault and increase sex-positive communication. Women's external consent behaviors are frequently examined; however, research exploring their internal consent and feelings associated with sexual activity is understudied. The purpose of this study was to understand how partner status and sexual behavior at most recent sexual activity influence women's external/internal consent and feelings during sexual activity. Three hundred and ninety women completed a survey on consent, partner status, and most recent sexual behavior. Internal and external consent differed by partner status for women who engaged in vaginal-penile sex, but not genital and oral sex. Feelings associated with the sexual act were different within each behavior group and partner status. Women with a serious dating partner reported stronger feelings related to sexual activity, higher internal consent feelings, and increased use of nonverbal external consent cues. Partner status appears to influence factors of interest for vaginal-penile sex, but not genital and oral sex. Findings from this study can inform prevention efforts to increase sex-positive communication around consent.

Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Nonmedical Prescription Drug Use Among College Students With Trauma Exposure.

OBJECTIVE: Nonmedical prescription drug use, defined as using the drug without a prescription or in ways for which it is not prescribed, and traumatic event exposure are highly prevalent among college students. Despite evidence that posttraumatic stress symptoms could place college students at risk for nonmedical prescription drug problems, no studies have examined this relationship. This study was a preliminary examination of posttraumatic stress symptoms, lifetime nonmedical prescription drug use, hazardous use, and dependence symptoms among college students with trauma exposure. METHODS: Participants were students attending a rural college in Virginia, recruited through psychology classes, flyers, LISTSERVs, and announcements at student events. All students who reported experiencing at least one traumatic event were included (N = 119); participants' mean age was 19.7 years (SD = 1.90), about half were women (n = 63, 53%), and most were Caucasian (n = 103, 87%). RESULTS: Nearly 60% of participants (n = 71) reported using nonmedical prescription drugs at least once during their lifetime and were more likely than those with no use to report hazardous alcohol use (p < .01) and depressive symptoms (p < .05). There were no other significant differences between those who did and did not report use of nonmedical prescription drugs. Regression analyses showed that posttraumatic stress symptom frequency was positively associated with hazardous nonmedical prescription drug use, after controlling for gender, depressive symptoms, and hazardous alcohol use (p < .001). Posttraumatic stress symptom frequency was higher for those with any nonmedical prescription drug dependence symptoms (p < .001), but was unrelated to whether the student had ever engaged in nonmedical prescription drug use. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that consideration of the types of behaviors and problems a college student is experiencing related to nonmedical prescription drug use may be more relevant to posttraumatic stress symptom frequency than dichotomous measures of nonmedical prescription drug use alone. Further, the association between the frequency of posttraumatic stress symptoms and both hazardous nonmedical prescription drug use and dependence symptoms among college students with a trauma history deserves further investigation due to the resulting vulnerability to increasingly negative outcomes.

The Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Perceptions of Consent and Refusal Indicators in a Fictional Alcohol-Involved Sexual Encounter.

Alcohol intoxication may influence how bystanders interpret other people's consent and refusal cues. We examined the effects of alcohol intoxication on participants' perceptions of characters' consent and refusal indicators in a fictional vignette depicting an alcohol-involved sexual encounter. Young adults (n = 119, 52% women) participated in an alcohol administration experiment examining the influence of acute intoxication on bystander perceptions during a vignette depicting a character who is intoxicated and declines a sexual advance from another character, who ignores her refusal and continues to pursue sexual activity. Participants were randomly assigned to an alcohol or non-alcohol condition and then guided through a semi-structured interview in which we asked about the characters' consent and refusal cues. Interviews were analyzed using both inductive and deductive coding. Most participants eventually indicated the encounter was nonconsensual, but approximately 9% of participants described the encounter as entirely consensual and another 42% of participants described the interaction as initially consensual and then nonconsensual. Participants discussed nuanced accounts of consent and refusal cues, including indicators related to alcohol consumption. Disregarding intoxication and gender, participants eventually recognized the situation as nonconsensual and thus potentially risky. However, some participants recognized this risk earlier in the encounter than others. Consequently, bystanders who recognize risk later in a situation may have fewer opportunities to intervene before a situation escalates. We recommend sexual assault prevention educators take a more nuanced approach when discussing consent and refusal indicators, emphasizing contextual factors that may indicate risk.

Women's disclosure of college sexual assault: Greek-life status does not influence disclosure.

Objective: Due to high prevalence rates of sexual assault among college-aged women and the benefits of disclosure (e.g., emotional well-being), it remains important to consider barriers to disclosure. The current paper aimed to examine if barriers to disclosure may be more salient to sorority women. Participants: We examined differences in rates of hypothetical willingness to formally disclose (N = 693) and actual formal/informal disclosure (N = 584) as well as mental health as a function of Greek-life status among college women. Method: Two separate online surveys were administered (October, 2016; January, 2017), respectively. Results: Findings suggest no significant differences in rates of hypothetical or actual formal/informal disclosure as a function of Greek-life status; however, Greek-life members reported lower mental health. Conclusion: Findings from the current studies suggest that institutional factors (e.g., campus climate) may serve as a barrier to disclosure. Limitations and future directions in this important area are discussed.

Experiences of sexual assault and rape among college students with disabilities.

Objective and Methods: The study examined sexual victimization among college students with disabilities (n = 187) using an online survey at a large southern university. Students reported one or multiple disabilities: physical disabilities, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)/Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), learning disabilities, and emotional disabilities, with most students reporting more than one disability. Results: Overall, 71% of the sample experienced one or more types of lifetime sexual assault and/or rape, and 51% reported sexual victimization since attending the university. There were no significant differences in experiencing sexual assault and/or rape between students with one disability compared to students with more than one disability. Conclusions: Considering the high rates of sexual victimization among students with disabilities, and the dearth of research focusing on the context of sexual assault in this population, future research and research-based prevention initiatives are needed. Findings can inform future prevention efforts to address sexual violence among students with disabilities on campuses.

Bystander Intoxication and Appraisal of Sexual Assault Risk: A Field Study of Emerging Adult Bargoers.

Emerging adults are especially vulnerable to experiencing alcohol-related sexual assault. While bystanders play a critical role in preventing sexual assault, little is known about how bystander alcohol intoxication affects the intervention process-particularly in naturalistic settings. We recruited 315 emerging adult bargoers ages 21-29 (46% women; 28% non-college attending; 81% White) from a high-density bar area to provide responses to a sexual assault vignette and complete a breath alcohol concentration test. In this field-based study, we found a negative direct association between intoxication and appraisal of risk in the hypothetical sexual assault situation. We also found a negative indirect relation of intoxication on perceptions of personal responsibility to intervene and confidence in the ability to intervene, statistically mediated through reduced risk appraisal. Findings add to the limited literature in laboratory-based settings suggesting that bystander intoxication interferes with sexual assault intervention and help inform effective bystander intervention programming for emerging adults.

Differences in Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Experiences of Sexual Assault and Rape in a National U.S. Sample.

Lesbian and bisexual women experience significantly higher rates of sexual assault and rape compared with heterosexual women. Despite this, researchers have yet to distinguish whether sexual orientation itself or some other related social characteristics explain these higher rates. The objective of this study was to analyze women's rates of sexual assault and rape across sexual orientation status while accounting for other social characteristics (e.g., race, education, income, outness). Women (N = 1,366), who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%), completed a nationally distributed, cross-sectional online survey in 2016. Victimization and repeat victimization were assessed using a modified version of Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Victimization. Overall, 63% of bisexual, 49% of lesbian, and 35% of heterosexual women reported experiencing rape in their lifetime. When holding all other social characteristics constant, sexual orientation remained a significant predictor in the model. Compared with the odds of heterosexual women experiencing sexual assault or rape, bisexual women (3.7 odds of victimization; 7.3 odds of repeat victimization) and lesbian women (3.2 odds of repeat victimization) were disproportionately victimized. Sexual orientation clearly plays a role in sexual victimization risk, independent of other measured sociodemographic indicators. Continued research is needed to explore possible mechanisms behind sexual assault and rape prevalence, as well as the influence of contextual factors of victimization risk among sexual minority men.

The Interaction of Rape Myth Acceptance and Alcohol Intoxication on Bystander Intervention.

Bystander interventions for sexual assault promote third-party interference. People who endorse rape myths blame victims more and perpetrators less; consequently, rape myth acceptance (RMA) can impede helping behaviors toward sexual assault victims. Acute alcohol intoxication may exacerbate the effects of RMA on bystander intervention. In this study, we examined the influence of RMA-and potential moderating effect of acute alcohol intoxication-on predictors of bystander intervention. Young adults (N = 128) completed a survey in a lab setting, then consumed either an alcoholic or control beverage, read and listened to a fictional sexual assault scenario, and finally completed a semi-structured interview and postexperiment survey assessing their perceptions of the scenario. Using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), we found people with higher RMA blamed the victim more and perpetrator less; they were also less likely to perceive responsibility to intervene for a sexual assault victim. Alcohol intoxication did not exacerbate these effects. That is, alcohol intoxication was not a context in which RMA was expressed more strongly. We recommend bystander programs continue to address RMA, specifically as a barrier to intervening.

Two Studies Investigating Associations Between Sexual Assault Victimization History and Bystander Appraisals of Risk.

Across two studies, we examined sexual assault history and bystander appraisals of risk and the moderating roles of danger cue salience (Study 1) and alcohol intoxication (Study 2) in women. Participants (Study 1 = 148, Study 2 = 64) read vignettes ending with cues of nonconsensual sexual activity and an opportunity to intervene. Participants also completed self-report measures of vignette appraisals and history of sexual assault victimization. Across both studies, sexual assault victimization was unassociated with bystander risk appraisals. Alcohol intoxication and subtlety of nonconsent cues did not interact with sexual assault victimization history to influence appraisals of dangerousness.

Do Party Schools Report Higher Rates of Violence Against Women in Their Clery Data? A Latent Class Analysis.

The current study examined violent crimes against women among 1,384 four-year private and public college campuses using Clery Act data from 2014-2016 (i.e., rape, domestic and dating violence, stalking, and fondling). Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify five types of campuses: smaller (22%), liberal arts (25%), satellite (16%), private (19%), and party schools (18%). Smaller schools reported the lowest rates of violence against women (VAW), whereas private schools had significantly higher reported rapes. These findings have important implications for the types of campuses seem to be abiding by Clery law and reporting crimes that involve VAW.

Intoxicated bystanders' alcohol expectancies and valuations and the ability to detect risk in a potential sexual assault.

Alcohol intoxication, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol valuations are associated with impaired risk detection for victims of sexual assault; these factors may also impair risk detection of bystanders in a potential sexual assault. However, the relationship between expectancies, valuations and alcohol intoxication on bystanders' risk detection abilities has not been examined; the goal of this study was to address this gap in the literature. The current study used an alcohol administration experimental design that assessed 123 young adults' (50% women) alcohol expectancies and valuations, as well as their risk appraisal using a sexual assault vignette. Participants in the alcohol condition (n = 61) reported diminished ability to detect risk when they reported higher positive valuations compared with participants in the control condition (n = 62), but there were no effects of expectancies on bystanders' ability to detect risk in either condition. Risk detection is a crucial step in bystander prevention; alcohol intoxication, in combination with positive alcohol valuations may impede those appraisals.

Alcohol Intoxication Impairs the Bystander Intervention Process in a Hypothetical Sexual Assault: A Field Investigation.

Objective: High rates of alcohol-related sexual assault among young adults represent a significant public health problem. Bystander intervention programs are a promising strategy to reduce sexual assault incidence. However, little is known about how bystander intoxication may modify bystander intervention effectiveness. We examined the role of bystander intoxication and intoxication levels of the hypothetical victim and perpetrator on outcomes associated with Latané and Darley's (1970) steps of bystander intervention, which include noticing a situation, assessment of risk and need for intervention, taking personal responsibility for intervening, and selecting an intervention. Method: In a field setting, participants were recruited from a downtown area surrounded by several drinking establishments. After providing informed consent, 327 participants (45% women) ages 21 - 29 years listened to one of four sexual assault vignettes (varied by victim and perpetrator intoxication), responded to questionnaires assessing outcomes related to steps of bystander intervention, and completed a field breathalyzer test to measure intoxication level. Results: We found that increased participant intoxication was related to decreased accuracy of situation recall and assessment of risk and need for intervention, but not ratings of personal responsibility to intervene, chosen intervention strategy, or confidence to intervene. Conclusions: Intoxication could influence how a bystander interprets a hypothetical nonconsensual sexual interaction at the level of accurate situation recall and risk assessment. If the early steps of information processing are impaired by intoxication, later steps of intervention enactment may not occur successfully. Bystander intervention programming may consider incorporating training to overcome the impairing effects of intoxication for identifying harmful situations and choosing to intervene.

A Brief Report of Sexual Violence among Universities with NCAA Division I Athletic Programs.

Violence against women on college campuses continues to be a pervasive public health problem with approximately one in five women experiencing sexual assault and one in nine women experiencing rape while in college. The current study examined relationship and sexual violence among National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I universities. Based on previous research, Division I universities seem to report higher rates of sexual assault, but within-group differences have yet to be examined. The data include 1422 four-year private and public institutions with at least 1000 students who submitted Clery data (2014) on rape, domestic and dating violence, and stalking. Division I campuses reported significantly higher reports of violence against women compared to Division II, III, and universities with no athletic programs. There were no differences in violence reported across the three subdivisions within Division I, however, certain conferences reported significantly higher relationship and sexual violence within the football bowl and football championship subdivisions. These findings have important implications for targeting higher risk campuses, such as the Big 10, Big 12, Ivy League, Pac-12, and SEC with much needed sexual assault prevention programs.

Effect of Alcohol Intoxication on Bystander Intervention in a Vignette Depiction of Sexual Assault.

OBJECTIVE: Alcohol-related sexual violence remains a public health problem. Despite the popularity of sexual assault bystander intervention programs, these may be limited in addressing bystander intoxication because the effects of intoxication on intervening in a sexual assault are unknown. Therefore, we tested the effects of alcohol intoxication on the five steps of bystander intervention in a sexual assault vignette. METHOD: Young adults (N = 128; 50% women) were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (target blood alcohol concentration = 0.08%; n = 64) or a nonalcoholic control beverage (n = 64) in a bar-laboratory. Next, participants were presented with a vignette describing events occurring in a convivial drinking context that ends with nonconsensual sexual behavior. Latané and Darley's bystander intervention model steps were assessed in a semistructured interview. RESULTS: Participants in the control condition recalled the story more accurately (Step 1: notice the event) and reported greater risk/need for intervention (Step 2), but they did not differ on the latter three steps of bystander intervention compared with alcohol-condition participants. Intoxication effects were similar for men and women. Furthermore, risk/need for intervention (Step 2) partially mediated the effect of alcohol condition on personal responsibility (Step 3) and relative benefits versus costs from intervening (Step 4). CONCLUSIONS: Prevention programs should consider the effects of alcohol on detecting a sexual assault and the need to intervene. If intoxicated bystanders do not detect a sexual assault, then bystanders will not reach the crucial steps (i.e., taking responsibility for intervening; willingness and ability to intervene) required to intervene successfully.

The Role of Title IX Coordinators on College and University Campuses.

The purpose of this study was to better understand the role of Title IX coordinators and their policies across four-year universities and two-year community colleges in the United States (U.S.). There is little information regarding Title IX coordinators' training, background, and policies on how they handle Title IX investigations regarding sexual violence. The data come from an online survey that included 692 Title IX coordinators across four-year (private and public) and two-year campuses and represented 42 different states in the US. The current study found that most Title IX coordinators were in part-time positions with less than three years of experience. Most of the coordinators and their investigators were trained in Title IX policies. Most coordinators provide Title IX training for their students and faculty, and most have completed a campus climate survey; however, 15% had not completed a survey. The findings suggest that the majority of campuses are continuing to increase their Title IX visibility; however, there are several recommendations for campuses to improve their policies. The current study was able to shed light on how Title IX coordinators do their jobs and the role they play in helping with the challenging issues surrounding sexual violence at institutions across the nation.

"Good Guys Don't Rape": Greek and Non-Greek College Student Perpetrator Rape Myths.

The current study examined sexual assault perpetrator rape myths among college students, and in particular Greek students. Fraternity men are overrepresented among sexual assault perpetrators, while sorority women are at increased risk for victimization of sexual assault. The current study examined Greek-affiliated and non-Greek-affiliated perceptions of perpetrator rape myths among 892 college students; 58% of the sample was Greek-affiliated. Men and Greek-affiliated students reported higher agreement on stereotypes than women and non-Greek-affiliated students regarding perpetrator rape myths. Specifically, fraternity men reported higher stereotypical perceptions compared to all women and non-affiliated men, while there was no difference between sorority and non-affiliated women.

An empirical investigation of campus demographics and reported rapes.

OBJECTIVE: Rape on college campuses continues to be a pervasive public health issue with approximately 11% of women experiencing rape while in college. As such, it is important to examine factors unique to college campuses that influence the occurrences of rape. METHODS: Using data from 1,423 four-year universities (public and private with at least 1,000 students) from the Office of Education and the Clery Act (2014), we examined institutional risk factors, such as tuition, liquor violations, Greek-life, athletic programs, institution type (public vs. private), and geographical location. RESULTS: Public institutions with higher tuition, more liquor violations, and greater numbers of fraternity men and athletes were more likely to report rape on their campuses. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that there are university-level characteristics which may increase certain campuses propensity toward violence against women.

The Role of Alcohol Consumption Patterns and Pro-Social Bystander Interventions in Contexts of Gender Violence.

Studies have shown that people differ in their likelihood of intervening as a bystander in situations of violence, but it is unclear how these actions relate to the use of alcohol. Two studies (N = 1,525) examined the relationship between alcohol use and pro-social bystander interventions in situations of physical and sexual coercion. Studies 1 and 2 provided cross-sectional evidence that alcohol use, along with alcohol expectancies, predicted patterns of bystander interventions, depending on gender. Discussion centers on the importance of including alcohol as another facet in understanding the role of pro-social bystander interventions.