Nav1.2 channel mutations preventing fast inactivation lead to SCN2A encephalopathy.

SCN2A gene-related early-infantile developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (EI-DEE) is a rare and severe disorder that manifests in early infancy. SCN2A mutations affecting the fast inactivation gating mechanism can result in altered voltage dependence and incomplete inactivation of the encoded neuronal Nav1.2 channel and lead to abnormal neuronal excitability. In this study, we evaluated clinical data of seven missense Nav1.2 variants associated with DEE and performed molecular dynamics simulations, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and dynamic clamp real-time neuronal modelling to elucidate the molecular and neuron-scale phenotypic consequences of the mutations. The N1662D mutation almost completely prevented fast inactivation without affecting activation. The comparison of wild-type and N1662D channel structures suggested that the ambifunctional hydrogen bond formation between residues N1662 and Q1494 is essential for fast inactivation. Fast inactivation could also be prevented with engineered Q1494A or Q1494L Nav1.2 channel variants, whereas Q1494E or Q1494 K variants resulted in incomplete inactivation and persistent current. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed a reduced affinity of the hydrophobic IFM-motif to its receptor site with N1662D and Q1494L variants relative to wild-type. These results demonstrate that the interactions between N1662 and Q1494 underpin the stability and the orientation of the inactivation gate and are essential for the development of fast inactivation. Six DEE-associated Nav1.2 variants, with mutations mapped to channel segments known to be implicated in fast inactivation were also evaluated. Remarkably, the L1657P variant also prevented fast inactivation and produced biophysical characteristics that were similar to those of N1662D, whereas the M1501 V, M1501T, F1651C, P1658S, and A1659 V variants resulted in biophysical properties that were consistent with gain-of-function and enhanced action potential firing of hybrid neurons in dynamic action potential clamp experiments. Paradoxically, low densities of N1662D or L1657P currents potentiated action potential firing, whereas increased densities resulted in sustained depolarization. Our results provide novel structural insights into the molecular mechanism of Nav1.2 channel fast inactivation and inform treatment strategies for SCN2A-related EI-DEE. The contribution of non-inactivating Nav1.2 channels to neuronal excitability may constitute a distinct cellular mechanism in the pathogenesis of SCN2A-related DEE.

Critical incidents, nocturnal supervision, and caregiver knowledge on SUDEP in patients with Dravet syndrome: A prospective multicenter study in Germany.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to investigate the monitoring, interventions, and occurrence of critical, potentially life-threatening incidents in patients with Dravet syndrome (DS) and caregivers' knowledge about sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). METHODS: This multicenter, cross-sectional study of patients with DS and their caregivers in Germany consisted of a questionnaire and prospective diary querying the disease characteristics and demographic data of patients and caregivers. RESULTS: Our analysis included 108 questionnaires and 82 diaries. Patients with DS were 49.1% male (n = 53), with a mean age of 13.5 (SD ± 10.0 years) and primary caregivers were 92.6% (n = 100) female, with a mean age of 44.7 (SD ± 10.6 years). Monitoring devices were used regularly by 75.9% (n = 82) of caregivers, and most monitored daily/nightly. Frequently used devices were pulse oximeters (64.6%), baby monitors (64.6%), thermometers (24.1%), and Epi-Care (26.8%). Younger caregiver and patient age and history of status epilepticus were associated with increased use of monitoring, and 81% of monitor users reported having avoided a critical incident with nocturnal monitoring. The need for resuscitation due to cardiac or respiratory arrest was reported by 22 caregivers (20.4%), and most cases (72.7%) were associated with a seizure. Caregivers reported frequently performing interventions at night, including oropharyngeal suction, oxygenation, personal hygiene, and change of body position. Most caregivers were well informed about SUDEP (n = 102; 94%) and monitored for a lateral or supine body position; however, only 39.8% reported receiving resuscitation training, whereas 52.8% (n = 57) knew what to do in case the child's breathing or heart activity failed. SIGNIFICANCE: Critical incidents and the need for resuscitation are reported frequently by caregivers and may be related to high mortality and SUDEP rates in DS. Resuscitation training is welcomed by caregivers and should be continuously provided. Oxygen monitoring devices are frequently used and considered useful by caregivers.

Treatment of Infantile Spasm Syndrome: Update from the Interdisciplinary Guideline Committee Coordinated by the German-Speaking Society of Neuropediatrics.

OBJECTIVES: The manuscript serves as an update on the current management practices for infantile spasm syndrome (ISS). It includes a detailed summary of the level of current evidence of different treatment options for ISS and gives recommendations for the treatment and care of patients with ISS. METHODS: A literature search was performed using the Cochrane and Medline Databases (2014 to July 2020). All studies were objectively rated using the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. For recommendations, the evidence from these studies was combined with the evidence from studies used in the 2014 guideline. RECOMMENDATIONS: If ISS is suspected, electroencephalography (EEG) should be performed within a few days and, if confirmed, treatment should be initiated immediately. Response to first-line treatment should be evaluated clinically and electroencephalographically after 14 days. The preferred first-line treatment for ISS consists of either hormone-based monotherapy (AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone [ACTH] or prednisolone) or a combination of hormone and vigabatrin. Children with tuberous sclerosis complex and those with contraindications against hormone treatment should be treated with vigabatrin. If first-line drugs are ineffective, second-line treatment options such as ketogenic dietary therapies, sulthiame, topiramate, valproate, zonisamide, or benzodiazepines should be considered. Children refractory to drug therapy should be evaluated early for epilepsy surgery, especially if focal brain lesions are present. Parents should be informed about the disease, the efficacy and adverse effects of the medication, and support options for the family. Regular follow-up controls are recommended.

The relation of optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and intracranial pressure (ICP) in pediatric neurosurgery practice - Part I: Correlations, age-dependency and cut-off values.

PURPOSE: It is assumed that the width of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) is dependent on intracranial pressure (ICP) and pulsatility and thus constitutes a non-invasively accessible "window" for qualitative assessment of ICP. Data on the correlation to invasively measured ICP in children are scarce and have often been obtained from sedated patients in intensive care unit (ICU) or intraoperatively. We report on a mixed cohort of pediatric neurosurgical patients, ICP and ONSD measurements were available from both sedated and awake children, only a minority from ICU patients. METHODS: Seventy-two children were investigated. Ultrasound ONSD determination was performed immediately prior to invasive ICP measurement and the mean binocular ONSD was compared with ICP. The investigations were performed in children awake, sedated, or under general anesthesia. RESULTS: In the entire patient cohort, the correlation between ONSD and ICP was good (r = 0.52, p < 0.01). Children > 1 year revealed a better correlation (r = 0.63; p < 0.01) and those ≤ 1 year did worse (r = 0.21). Infants with open fontanelle had no correlation. In the entire cohort, the best ONSD cut-off value for detecting ICP ≥ 15 and ≥ 20 mmHg was 5.28 and 5.57 mm (OR 22.5 and 7.2, AUC 0.782 and 0.733). CONCLUSION: Transorbital ultrasound measurement of ONSD is a reliable non-invasive technique to assess increased ICP in children in every clinical situation; however, the impact of age and fontanelle status needs to be considered. ONSD thresholds enable qualitative first orientation regarding ICP categories with a very satisfying diagnostic accuracy.

The relation of optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and intracranial pressure (ICP) in pediatric neurosurgery practice - Part II: Influence of wakefulness, method of ICP measurement, intra-individual ONSD-ICP correlation and changes after therapy.

PURPOSE: Previous studies correlating ultrasound (US)-based optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and intracranial pressure (ICP) in children were performed under general anesthesia. To apply ONSD in daily clinical routine, it is necessary to investigate patients awake. It is furthermore essential for ICP-assessment with ONSD to know if ONSD-ICP correlation varies within individuals. In this study, we report on the influence of wakefulness, method of ICP measurement, intraindividual correlations, and dynamic changes of ONSD and ICP after ICP decreasing therapy. METHODS: The overall study included 72 children with a median age of 5.2 years. US ONSD determination was performed immediately prior to invasive ICP measurement, and the mean binocular ONSD was compared to ICP. In 10 children, a minimum of 3 ONSD/ICP measurements were performed to investigate a correlation within subjects. In 30 children, measurements were performed before and after therapy. RESULTS: Twenty-eight children were investigated awake with an excellent correlation of ONSD and ICP (r = 0.802, p < 0.01). In 10 children, at least three simultaneous ONSD and ICP measurements were performed. The intraindividual correlations were excellent (r = 0.795-1.0) however with strongly differing individual regression curves. The overall correlation within subjects was strong (r = 0.78, p < 0.01). After ICP decreasing therapy, all ONSD values decreased significantly (p < 0.01); however, there was no correlation between ∆ICP and ∆ONSD. CONCLUSION: Awake investigation does not impair the correlation between ONSD and ICP. Even if there is a good overall ONSD-ICP correlation, every individual has its own distinctive and precise correlation line. The relationship between ONSD and ICP is furthermore not uniform between individuals. Strong ICP decreases can lead to smaller ONSD changes and vice versa. This should be kept in mind when using this technique in the clinical daily routine.

Phenotypic spectrum and genetics of SCN2A-related disorders, treatment options, and outcomes in epilepsy and beyond.

Pathogenic variants in the SCN2A gene are associated with a variety of neurodevelopmental phenotypes, defined in recent years through multicenter collaboration. Phenotypes include benign (self-limited) neonatal and infantile epilepsy and more severe developmental and epileptic encephalopathies also presenting in early infancy. There is increasing evidence that an important phenotype linked to the gene is autism and intellectual disability without epilepsy or with rare seizures in later childhood. Other associations of SCN2A include the movement disorders chorea and episodic ataxia. It is likely that as genetic testing enters mainstream practice that new phenotypic associations will be identified. Some missense, gain of function variants tend to present in early infancy with epilepsy, whereas other missense or truncating, loss of function variants present with later-onset epilepsies or intellectual disability only. Knowledge of both mutation type and functional consequences can guide precision therapy. Sodium channel blockers may be effective antiepileptic medications in gain of function, neonatal and infantile presentations.

A multicenter, matched case-control analysis comparing burden-of-illness in Dravet syndrome to refractory epilepsy and seizure remission in patients and caregivers in Germany.

OBJECTIVE: To compare direct and indirect costs and quality of life (QoL) of pediatric and adult patients with Dravet syndrome (DS), with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) and in seizure remission (SR), and their caregivers, in Germany. METHODS: Questionnaire responses from 93 DS patients and their caregivers were matched by age and gender with responses from 93 DRE and 93 SR patients collected in independent studies, and were compared across main components of QoL, direct costs (patient visits, medication use, care level, medical equipment, and ancillary treatments), and indirect costs (quitting job, reduced working hours, missed days). RESULTS: Mean total direct costs were highest for DS patients (€4864 [median €3564] vs €3049 [median €1506] for DRE [excluding outliers], P = 0.01; and €1007 [median €311], P < 0.001 for SR). Total lost productivity over 3 months was highest among caregivers of pediatric DS (€4757, median €2841), compared with those of DRE (€1541, P < 0.001; median €0) and SR patients (€891, P < 0.001; median €0). The proportions of caregivers in employment were similar across groups (62% DS, 63% DRE, and 63% SR) but DS caregivers were more likely to experience changes to their working situation, such as quitting their job (40% DS vs 16% DRE and 9% SR, P < 0.001 in both comparisons). KINDL scores were significantly lower for DS patients (62 vs 74 and 72, P < 0.001 in both comparisons), and lower than for the average German population (77). Pediatric caregiver EQ-5D scores across all cohorts were comparable with population norms, but more DS caregivers experienced moderate to severe depressive symptoms (24% vs 11% and 5%). Mean Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) score was significantly higher in DS caregivers than either of the other groups (P < 0.001). SIGNIFICANCE: This first comparative study of Dravet syndrome to difficult-to-treat epilepsy and to epilepsy patients in seizure remission emphasizes the excess burden of DS in components of QoL and direct costs. The caregivers of DS patients have a greater impairment of their working lives (indirect costs) and increased depression symptoms.

Seizure management and prescription patterns of anticonvulsants in Dravet syndrome: A multicenter cohort study from Germany and review of literature.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to describe the treatment pattern of patients with Dravet syndrome (DS) in Germany with routine antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and emergency medication, and to review the literature of real-world evidence on medicine utilization of patients with DS in Europe. METHODS: Patient use of routine AEDs and emergency medications over 3-6 months was analyzed from a 2018 multicenter survey of 93 caregivers of patients with DS throughout Germany. Results were contextualized in a review of real-world evidence on medicine utilization of patients with DS in Europe. RESULTS: The variety of medications and the most frequent combinations routinely used by patients with DS (AEDs and others) are described. Patients use a large number of pharmaceutical treatments to manage seizures. The five most commonly used AEDs were sodium valproate (66% of the patients; mean daily dose: 660 mg; 24.5 mg per kg bodyweight), bromide (44%; 1462 mg; 51.2 mg per kg), clobazam (41%; 10.4 mg; 0.32 mg per kg), stiripentol (35%; 797 mg; 27.6 mg per kg), and topiramate (24%; 107 mg; 3.5 mg per kg). Ninety percent had reported using emergency medications in the last 3 months;, with the most common medications being Buccolam (40%, an oromucosal form of midazolam) and diazepam (20%, mostly rectal application). No discernable relationships between current medication and age or seizure frequency were observed. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first comprehensive report of routine AEDs and emergency medication use in a large sample of patients with DS in Germany over a period of 3-6 months and shows that despite the most common AED combinations being in line with clinical guidelines/best practice, there is no discernable impact of best treatment on seizure frequency. We find a higher use of bromide in Germany compared with other real-world evidence in Europe.

Clinical spectrum and genotype-phenotype associations of KCNA2-related encephalopathies.

Recently, de novo mutations in the gene KCNA2, causing either a dominant-negative loss-of-function or a gain-of-function of the voltage-gated K+ channel Kv1.2, were described to cause a new molecular entity within the epileptic encephalopathies. Here, we report a cohort of 23 patients (eight previously described) with epileptic encephalopathy carrying either novel or known KCNA2 mutations, with the aim to detail the clinical phenotype associated with each of them, to characterize the functional effects of the newly identified mutations, and to assess genotype-phenotype associations. We identified five novel and confirmed six known mutations, three of which recurred in three, five and seven patients, respectively. Ten mutations were missense and one was a truncation mutation; de novo occurrence could be shown in 20 patients. Functional studies using a Xenopus oocyte two-microelectrode voltage clamp system revealed mutations with only loss-of-function effects (mostly dominant-negative current amplitude reduction) in eight patients or only gain-of-function effects (hyperpolarizing shift of voltage-dependent activation, increased amplitude) in nine patients. In six patients, the gain-of-function was diminished by an additional loss-of-function (gain-and loss-of-function) due to a hyperpolarizing shift of voltage-dependent activation combined with either decreased amplitudes or an additional hyperpolarizing shift of the inactivation curve. These electrophysiological findings correlated with distinct phenotypic features. The main differences were (i) predominant focal (loss-of-function) versus generalized (gain-of-function) seizures and corresponding epileptic discharges with prominent sleep activation in most cases with loss-of-function mutations; (ii) more severe epilepsy, developmental problems and ataxia, and atrophy of the cerebellum or even the whole brain in about half of the patients with gain-of-function mutations; and (iii) most severe early-onset phenotypes, occasionally with neonatal onset epilepsy and developmental impairment, as well as generalized and focal seizures and EEG abnormalities for patients with gain- and loss-of-function mutations. Our study thus indicates well represented genotype-phenotype associations between three subgroups of patients with KCNA2 encephalopathy according to the electrophysiological features of the mutations.

Genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity suggest therapeutic implications in SCN2A-related disorders.

Mutations in SCN2A, a gene encoding the voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.2, have been associated with a spectrum of epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we report the phenotypes of 71 patients and review 130 previously reported patients. We found that (i) encephalopathies with infantile/childhood onset epilepsies (≥3 months of age) occur almost as often as those with an early infantile onset (<3 months), and are thus more frequent than previously reported; (ii) distinct phenotypes can be seen within the late onset group, including myoclonic-atonic epilepsy (two patients), Lennox-Gastaut not emerging from West syndrome (two patients), and focal epilepsies with an electrical status epilepticus during slow sleep-like EEG pattern (six patients); and (iii) West syndrome constitutes a common phenotype with a major recurring mutation (p.Arg853Gln: two new and four previously reported children). Other known phenotypes include Ohtahara syndrome, epilepsy of infancy with migrating focal seizures, and intellectual disability or autism without epilepsy. To assess the response to antiepileptic therapy, we retrospectively reviewed the treatment regimen and the course of the epilepsy in 66 patients for which well-documented medical information was available. We find that the use of sodium channel blockers was often associated with clinically relevant seizure reduction or seizure freedom in children with early infantile epilepsies (<3 months), whereas other antiepileptic drugs were less effective. In contrast, sodium channel blockers were rarely effective in epilepsies with later onset (≥3 months) and sometimes induced seizure worsening. Regarding the genetic findings, truncating mutations were exclusively seen in patients with late onset epilepsies and lack of response to sodium channel blockers. Functional characterization of four selected missense mutations using whole cell patch-clamping in tsA201 cells-together with data from the literature-suggest that mutations associated with early infantile epilepsy result in increased sodium channel activity with gain-of-function, characterized by slowing of fast inactivation, acceleration of its recovery or increased persistent sodium current. Further, a good response to sodium channel blockers clinically was found to be associated with a relatively small gain-of-function. In contrast, mutations in patients with late-onset forms and an insufficient response to sodium channel blockers were associated with loss-of-function effects, including a depolarizing shift of voltage-dependent activation or a hyperpolarizing shift of channel availability (steady-state inactivation). Our clinical and experimental data suggest a correlation between age at disease onset, response to sodium channel blockers and the functional properties of mutations in children with SCN2A-related epilepsy.

Treatment of Infantile Spasms: Report of the Interdisciplinary Guideline Committee Coordinated by the German-Speaking Society for Neuropediatrics.

Objectives This report aims to define treatment goals, to summarize the evidence level (EL) of different treatment options for infantile spasms (IS), both in terms of efficacy and adverse effect, and to give recommendations for the management of IS. Methods The Cochrane and Medline (1966-July 2014) databases were searched. Literature known to the guideline working group and identified through citations was also considered. The results of previously published guidelines were taken into account in our analysis. Rating the level of evidence followed the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Recommendations If IS are suspected, electroencephalogram (EEG) should be performed within a few days and, if confirmed, treatment should be initiated immediately. Response to first-line treatments should be evaluated clinically and electroencephalographically after 14 days.Adrenocorticotropic hormone, corticosteroids, and vigabatrin are the first-line drugs for the treatment of IS. In children with tuberous sclerosis complex, vigabatrin is the treatment of first choice. Ketogenic diet, sulthiame, topiramate, valproate, zonisamide, and benzodiazepines can be used when first-line drugs have proved ineffective. Children refractory to drug therapy should be evaluated for epilepsy surgery, especially if focal brain lesions are present.Regular follow-up controls, including EEG (preferably sleep EEG) and standardized developmental assessment are recommended.

Beneficial impact of high-field intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging on the efficacy of pediatric low-grade glioma surgery.

OBJECTIVE: Intraoperative MRI (iMRI) is assumed to safely improve the extent of resection (EOR) in patients with gliomas. This study focuses on advantages of this imaging technology in elective low-grade glioma (LGG) surgery in pediatric patients. METHODS: The surgical results of conventional and 1.5-T iMRI-guided elective LGG surgery in pediatric patients were retrospectively compared. Tumor volumes, general clinical data, EOR according to reference radiology assessment, and progression-free survival (PFS) were analyzed. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were included in the study, of whom 34 had undergone conventional surgery before the iMRI unit opened (pre-iMRI period) and 31 had undergone surgery with iMRI guidance (iMRI period). Perioperative data were comparable between the 2 cohorts, apart from larger preoperative tumor volumes in the pre-iMRI period, a difference without statistical significance, and (as expected) significantly longer surgeries in the iMRI group. According to 3-month postoperative MRI studies, an intended complete resection (CR) was achieved in 41% (12 of 29) of the patients in the pre-iMRI period and in 71% (17 of 24) of those in the iMRI period (p = 0.05). Of those cases in which the surgeon was postoperatively convinced that he had successfully achieved CR, this proved to be true in only 50% of cases in the pre-iMRI period but in 81% of cases in the iMRI period (p = 0.055). Residual tumor volumes on 3-month postoperative MRI were significantly smaller in the iMRI cohort (p < 0.03). By continuing the resection of residual tumor after the intraoperative scan (when the surgeon assumed that he had achieved CR), the rate of CR was increased from 30% at the time of the scan to 85% at the 3-month postoperative MRI. The mean follow-up for the entire study cohort was 36.9 months (3-79 months). Progression-free survival after surgery was noticeably better for the entire iMRI cohort and in iMRI patients with postoperatively assumed CR, but did not quite reach statistical significance. Moreover, PFS was highly significantly better in patients with CRs than in those with incomplete resections (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Significantly better surgical results (CR) and PFS were achieved after using iMRI in patients in whom total resections were intended. Therefore, the use of high-field iMRI is strongly recommended for electively planned LGG resections in pediatric patients.

GRIN2B mutations in West syndrome and intellectual disability with focal epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: To identify novel epilepsy genes using a panel approach and describe the functional consequences of mutations. METHODS: Using a panel approach, we screened 357 patients comprising a vast spectrum of epileptic disorders for defects in genes known to contribute to epilepsy and/or intellectual disability (ID). After detection of mutations in a novel epilepsy gene, we investigated functional effects in Xenopus laevis oocytes and screened a follow-up cohort. RESULTS: We revealed de novo mutations in GRIN2B encoding the NR2B subunit of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in 2 individuals with West syndrome and severe developmental delay as well as 1 individual with ID and focal epilepsy. The patient with ID and focal epilepsy had a missense mutation in the extracellular glutamate-binding domain (p.Arg540His), whereas both West syndrome patients carried missense mutations within the NR2B ion channel-forming re-entrant loop (p.Asn615Ile, p.Val618Gly). Subsequent screening of 47 patients with unexplained infantile spasms did not reveal additional de novo mutations, but detected a carrier of a novel inherited GRIN2B splice site variant in close proximity (c.2011-5_2011-4delTC). Mutations p.Asn615Ile and p.Val618Gly cause a significantly reduced Mg(2+) block and higher Ca(2+) permeability, leading to a dramatically increased Ca(2+) influx, whereas p.Arg540His caused less severe disturbance of channel function, corresponding to the milder patient phenotype. INTERPRETATION: We identified GRIN2B gain-of-function mutations as a cause of West syndrome with severe developmental delay as well as of ID with childhood onset focal epilepsy. Severely disturbed channel function corresponded to severe clinical phenotypes, underlining the important role of facilitated NMDA receptor signaling in epileptogenesis.

Effectiveness and tolerability of perampanel in children and adolescents with refractory epilepsies: first experiences.

OBJECTIVE: This article aims to report the first clinical experiences concerning effectiveness and tolerability of perampanel (PER) in a pediatric population with refractory epilepsies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This nonsponsored, observational, retrospective survey was conducted through collaboration with multiple centers in Europe. The clinical course of the first pediatric patients treated in these centers with PER was documented with the help of a questionnaire completed by the treating physicians. Effectiveness and adverse effects were evaluated. The study population consisted of 58 patients (mean age, 10.5 years; range, 2-17 years), suffering from various refractory epilepsies, classified as focal epilepsy (n = 36), unclassified generalized epilepsy (n = 12), Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (n = 5), West syndrome (n = 3), and Dravet syndrome (n = 2). RESULTS: The response rate (≥ 50% seizure reduction) after the first 3 months of therapy was 31% (18/58 patients) in total. Complete seizure control was achieved in five patients (9% overall). Aggravation of seizures occurred in five cases (9%). The most frequently occurring adverse effects were reduced vigilance or fatigue (n = 16) and behavioral changes (n = 14). DISCUSSION: PER seems to be effective also in children and adolescents with pharmaco-refractory epilepsies. Tolerability was acceptable.

Plasma exchange is effective in a 13-year-old girl with steroid-resistant bilateral optic neuritis.

We describe a 13-year-old girl presenting with steroid-resistant bilateral optic neuritis. After plasma exchange (PE), the girl experienced full recovery of her visual acuity. During a 4-year follow-up no relapse occurred. As far as we know, this is the first report of PE treatment in optic neuritis in a child.

Sleep quality, anxiety, symptoms of depression, and caregiver burden among those caring for patients with Dravet syndrome: a prospective multicenter study in Germany.

BACKGROUND: This study measured sleep quality among caregivers of patients with Dravet syndrome (DS) and assessed the impacts of mental health problems and caregiver burden on sleep quality. METHODS: This multicenter, cross-sectional study of patients with DS and their caregivers throughout Germany consisted of a questionnaire and a prospective 4-week diary querying disease characteristics, demographic data, living conditions, nocturnal supervision, and caregivers' work situations. Sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleeping Quality Index (PSQI). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and the Burden Scale for Family Caregivers (BSFC) were used to measure anxiety, symptoms of depression, and caregiver burden. RESULTS: Our analysis included 108 questionnaires and 82 four-week diaries. Patients with DS were 49.1% male (n = 53), with a mean age of 13.5 ± 10.0 years. Caregivers were 92.6% (n = 100) female, with a mean age of 44.7 ± 10.6 years. The overall mean PSQI score was 8.7 ± 3.5, with 76.9% of participants (n = 83) scoring 6 or higher, indicating abnormal sleep quality. The HADS for anxiety and depression had overall mean scores of 9.3 ± 4.3 and 7.9 ± 3.7, respectively; 61.8% and 50.9% of participants scored above the cutoff value of 8 for anxiety and depression, respectively. Statistical analyses revealed caregiver anxiety levels and patients' sleep disturbances as major factors influencing PSQI scores. The overall mean BSFC score of 41.7 ± 11.7 indicates a moderate burden, with 45.3% of caregivers scoring 42 or higher. CONCLUSIONS: Sleep quality is severely affected among caregivers of patients with DS, correlating with anxiety, comorbidities, and patients' sleep disturbances. A holistic therapeutic approach should be implemented for patients with DS and their caregivers, focusing on the sleep quality and mental health of caregivers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS), DRKS00016967. Registered 27 May 2019, http://www.drks.de/DRKS00016967.

Interstitial 9q34.11-q34.13 deletion in a patient with severe intellectual disability, hydrocephalus, and cleft lip/palate.

Interstitial deletions of chromosome bands 9q34.11-q34.13 are rare. We report on a 16-year-old female patient with severe intellectual disability, congenital hydrocephalus, cleft lip and palate, talipes equinovarus, epilepsy, kyphoscoliosis, convergent strabismus, severe short stature, dystrophy, and facial dysmorphic signs. Array analysis revealed a 3.7 Mb interstitial deletion in 9q34.11-q34.13. The deletion harbors more than 60 genes, including SPTAN1, DYT1/TOR1A, ABL1, ASS1, LAMC3, POMT1, DOLK, and GLE1, mutations in which have previously been associated with monogenic disorders. This is the first patient with a deletion of this size and position in 9q34.11-q34.13. Reports of additional patients with aberrations in this region will be needed to establish karyotype-phenotype correlations and to gain information on the contribution of individual genes for the clinical manifestations.

Targeted next generation sequencing as a diagnostic tool in epileptic disorders.

PURPOSE: Epilepsies have a highly heterogeneous background with a strong genetic contribution. The variety of unspecific and overlapping syndromic and nonsyndromic phenotypes often hampers a clear clinical diagnosis and prevents straightforward genetic testing. Knowing the genetic basis of a patient's epilepsy can be valuable not only for diagnosis but also for guiding treatment and estimating recurrence risks. METHODS: To overcome these diagnostic restrictions, we composed a panel of genes for Next Generation Sequencing containing the most relevant epilepsy genes and covering the most relevant epilepsy phenotypes known so far. With this method, 265 genes were analyzed per patient in a single step. We evaluated this panel on a pilot cohort of 33 index patients with concise epilepsy phenotypes or with a severe but unspecific seizure disorder covering both sporadic and familial cases. KEY FINDINGS: We identified presumed disease-causing mutations in 16 of 33 patients comprising sequence alterations in frequently as well as in less commonly affected genes. The detected aberrations encompassed known and unknown point mutations (SCN1A p.R222X, p. E289V, p.379R, p.R393H; SCN2A p.V208E; STXBP1 p.R122X; KCNJ10 p.L68P, p.I129V; KCTD7 p.L108M; KCNQ3 p.P574S; ARHGEF9 p.R290H; SMS p.F58L; TPP1 p.Q278R, p.Q422H; MFSD8 p.T294K), a putative splice site mutation (SCN1A c.693A> p.T/P231P) and small deletions (SCN1A p.F1330Lfs3X [1 bp]; MFSD8 p.A138Dfs10X [7 bp]). All mutations have been confirmed by conventional Sanger sequencing and, where possible, validated by parental testing and segregation analysis. In three patients with either Dravet syndrome or myoclonic epilepsy, we detected SCN1A mutations (p.R222X, p.P231P, p.R393H), even though other laboratories had previously excluded aberrations of this gene by Sanger sequencing or high-resolution melting analysis. SIGNIFICANCE: We have developed a fast and cost-efficient diagnostic screening method to analyze the genetic basis of epilepsies. We were able to detect mutations in patients with clear and with unspecific epilepsy phenotypes, to uncover the genetic basis of many so far unresolved cases with epilepsy including mutation detection in cases in which previous conventional methods yielded falsely negative results. Our approach thus proved to be a powerful diagnostic tool that may contribute to collecting information on both common and unknown epileptic disorders and in delineating associated phenotypes of less frequently mutated genes.

Exploring the relationships between composite scores of disease severity, seizure-freedom and quality of life in Dravet syndrome.

BACKGROUND: In Dravet syndrome (DS), a rare epileptic and developmental encephalopathy, the effectiveness of a new treatment is predominantly measured in terms of seizure frequency. However, this may not fully capture the impact of a treatment on the broader aspects of the syndrome and patients' health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Using a previously published survey which collected data from DS patients and their carers on the broader manifestations of their syndrome, their HRQoL, and their experience of seizures, this study created composite measures of symptom severity to offer new perspectives on the multifaceted aspects of this rare condition. METHODS: Survey responses on the severity of physical and psychosocial symptoms were combined with independent assessments of disability and care need, to generate three composite symptom scores assessing the manifestations of DS (physical, psychosocial and care requirements). Variation in HRQoL was investigated in multiple regression analyses to assess the strength of association between each of these composite measures and three forms of seizure measures (seizure frequency, days with no seizures and longest interval without seizures), as experienced over a 4- and 12-week period. RESULTS: Composite scores were calculated for a cohort of 75 primarily paediatric patients who were enrolled in the study. Strong associations were found between each of the three composite symptom scores and each of the three seizure measures, with the regression coefficient on symptom score highly significant (p ≤ 0.001) in all nine comparisons. Separate regressions using predictors of HRQoL (Kiddy KINDL and Kid KINDL) as the dependent variable were inconclusive, identifying only behavioural/attention problems and status epilepticus as significant predictors of HRQoL. CONCLUSIONS: These results allow the development of a composite score that may be useful in developing a clinical understanding of the severity of DS for an individual patient and establishing their treatment goals. Where measurement of long-term sequalae of disease is not feasible, such as clinical trials, correlation of the composite score with experience of seizures and seizure-free periods may allow a better contextualisation of the results of short-term assessments. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS), DRKS00011894. Registered 16 March 2017, http://www.drks.de/ DRKS00011894.

Functional correlates of clinical phenotype and severity in recurrent SCN2A variants.

In SCN2A-related disorders, there is an urgent demand to establish efficient methods for determining the gain- (GoF) or loss-of-function (LoF) character of variants, to identify suitable candidates for precision therapies. Here we classify clinical phenotypes of 179 individuals with 38 recurrent SCN2A variants as early-infantile or later-onset epilepsy, or intellectual disability/autism spectrum disorder (ID/ASD) and assess the functional impact of 13 variants using dynamic action potential clamp (DAPC) and voltage clamp. Results show that 36/38 variants are associated with only one phenotypic group (30 early-infantile, 5 later-onset, 1 ID/ASD). Unexpectedly, we revealed major differences in outcome severity between individuals with the same variant for 40% of early-infantile variants studied. DAPC was superior to voltage clamp in predicting the impact of mutations on neuronal excitability and confirmed GoF produces early-infantile phenotypes and LoF later-onset phenotypes. For one early-infantile variant, the co-expression of the α1 and ß2 subunits of the Nav1.2 channel was needed to unveil functional impact, confirming the prediction of 3D molecular modeling. Neither DAPC nor voltage clamp reliably predicted phenotypic severity of early-infantile variants. Genotype, phenotypic group and DAPC are accurate predictors of the biophysical impact of SCN2A variants, but other approaches are needed to predict severity.