The Relationship Between Peripheral Arterial Disease Severity and Socioeconomic Status.

BACKGROUND: Although socioeconomic disparities in outcomes of peripheral artery disease (PAD) have been well studied, little is known about relationship between severity of PAD and socioeconomic status. The objective of this study was to examine this relationship. METHODS: Patients who had operations for severe PAD (rest pain or tissue loss) were identified in the National Inpatient Sample, 2005-2014. They were stratified by the median household income (MHI) quartiles of their residential ZIP codes. Other characteristics such as race/ethnicity and insurance type were extracted. Factors associated with more severe disease (tissue loss) were evaluated using multivariable regression analyses. RESULTS: There were 765,175 patients identified; 34% in the first MHI quartile and 18% in the fourth MHI quartile. Compared to patients in the first quartile, those in the fourth quartile were more likely White (69% vs. 42%, P < 0.001), more likely ≥65 years old (75% vs. 62%, P < 0.001), and were less likely to undergo amputations (25% vs. 34%, P < 0.001). After adjusting for patient characteristics, the fourth quartile was associated with more severe disease [Odds ratio: 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.11-1.27] compared to the first quartile. CONCLUSIONS: While higher MHI was associated with higher PAD severity, patients with high MHI were less likely to undergo amputations indicating a disparity in the choice of treatment for PAD. Increased efforts are necessary to reduce socioeconomic disparities in the treatment of severe PAD.

The influence of socioeconomic status on outcomes of lower extremity arterial reconstruction.

OBJECTIVE: Although it has been shown that patient socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with the surgical treatments chosen for severe peripheral arterial disease (PAD), the association between SES and outcomes of arterial reconstruction have not been well-studied. The objective of this study was to determine if SES is associated with outcomes following lower extremity arterial reconstruction. METHODS: Patients 40 years and older who had surgical revascularization for severe lower extremity PAD were identified in the Nationwide Readmissions Database, 2010 to 2014. Measures of SES including median household income (MHI) quartiles of patients' residential ZIP codes were extracted. Factors associated with repeat revascularization, subsequent major amputations, hospital mortality, and 30-day all-cause readmission were evaluated using multivariable regression analyses. RESULTS: Of the 131,529 patients identified, the majority (61%) were male, and the average age was 69 years. On unadjusted analyses, subsequent amputations were higher among patients in the lowest MHI quartile compared with patients in the highest MHI quartile (13% vs 10%; overall P < .001). On multivariable analyses, compared with patients in the lowest quartile, those in the highest quartile had lower amputation (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.70; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.63-0.77; overall P < .001) and readmission (aOR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.84-0.99; overall P = .028) rates. However, subsequent revascularization (aOR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.94-1.15) and mortality (aOR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.79-1.28) rates were not different across the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Lower SES is associated with disproportionally worse outcomes following lower extremity arterial reconstruction for severe PAD. These data suggest that improving outcomes of lower extremity arterial reconstruction may involve addressing socioeconomic disparities.

Role of Pediatric Emergency Physicians in Identifying Bullying.

BACKGROUND: Bullying is an important public health issue with broad implications. Although this issue has been studied extensively, there is limited emergency medicine literature addressing bullying. The emergency department (ED) physician has a unique opportunity to identify children and adolescents that are victims of bullying, and make a difference in their lives. OBJECTIVE: Our aim is to discuss the role of the emergency physician (EP) in identifying patients who have been victims of bullying and how to provide effective management as well as referral for further resources. DISCUSSION: This document provides a framework for recognizing, stabilizing, and managing children who have experienced bullying. With the advent of social media, bullying behavior is not limited to in-person situations, and often occurs via electronic communication, further complicating recognition because it may not impart any physical harm to the child. Recognition of bullying requires a high level of suspicion, as patients may not offer this history. After the stabilization of any acute or overt indications of physical injury, along with obtaining a history of the mechanism of injury, the EP has the opportunity to identify the existence of bullying as the cause of the injury, and can address the issue in the ED while collaborating with "physician-extenders," such as social workers, toward identifying local resources for further support. CONCLUSIONS: The ED is an important arena for the assessment and management of children who have experienced bullying. It is imperative that EPs on the front lines of patient care address this public health epidemic. They have the opportunity to exert a positive impact on the lives of the children and families who are the victims of bullying.

The Association Between Weight Status and Pediatric Forearm Fractures Resulting From Ground-Level Falls.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to evaluate the hypothesis that pediatric forearm fractures resulting from ground-level falls are associated with increased weight status (weight for age/sex percentile ≥ 95th) in comparison with those resulting from major trauma. METHODS: This is a retrospective case-control study nested within a case series of 929 children, ages 0 to 17 years, with self-identified residence in Washington, DC, who were treated for isolated forearm fractures in an urban, academic pediatric emergency department between 2003 and 2006. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to test for the association of weight status with mechanism of injury while controlling for sex, age, race/ethnicity, bone fractured, and season. RESULTS: Of 929 forearm fractures, there were 226 (24.3%) with ground-level falls and 54 (5.8%) with major trauma. Compared with children with forearm fractures resulting from major trauma, ground-level fall cases were significantly older (10.4 [3.4] vs 7.4 [4.2] years, P < 0.05), had greater adjusted odds of having a weight for age/sex of 95th percentile or higher (odds ratio, 2.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-6.5), and had significantly more radius-only fractures (odds ratio, 2.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.7). These groups did not differ in sex, race/ethnicity, or injury season. CONCLUSIONS: Ground-level falls are a common mechanism of pediatric forearm fracture and are significantly associated with increased weight status and radius-only fractures. These results suggest the need for further investigation into obesity and bone health in pediatric patients with forearm fractures caused by ground-level falls.

The development of evidence-based prehospital guidelines using a GRADE-based methodology.

BACKGROUND: The burgeoning literature in prehospital care creates an opportunity to improve care through evidence-based guidelines (EBGs). Previously, an established process for the creation of such guidelines and adoption and implementation at the local level was lacking. This has led to great variability in the content of prehospital protocols in different jurisdictions across the globe. Recently the Federal Interagency Committee on Emergency Medical Services (FICEMS) and the National EMS Advisory Council (NEMSAC) approved a National Prehospital Evidence-based Guideline Model Process for the development, implementation, and evaluation of EBGs. The Model Process recommends the use of established guideline development tools such as Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE). Objective. To describe the process of development of three prehospital EBGs using the National Prehospital EBG Model Process (EBG Model Process) and the GRADE EBG development tool. METHODS: We conducted three unique iterations of the EBG Model Process utilizing the GRADE EBG development tool. The process involved 6 distinct and essential steps, including 1) assembling the expert panel and providing GRADE training; 2) defining the evidence-based guideline (EBG) content area and establishing the specific clinical questions to address in patient, intervention, comparison, and outcome (PICO) format; 3) prioritizing outcomes to facilitate systematic literature searches; 4) creating GRADE tables, or evidence profiles, for each PICO question; 5) vetting and endorsing GRADE evidence tables and drafting recommendations; and 6) synthesizing recommendations into an EMS protocol and visual algorithm. Feedback and suggestions for improvement were solicited from participants and relevant stakeholders in the process. RESULTS: We successfully used the process to create three separate prehospital evidence-based guidelines, formatted into decision tree algorithms with levels of evidence and graded recommendations assigned to each decision point. However, the process revealed itself to be resource intensive, and most of the suggestions for improvement would require even more resource utilization. CONCLUSIONS: The National Prehospital EBG Model Process can be used to create credible, transparent, and usable prehospital evidence-based guidelines. We suggest that a centralized or regionalized approach be used to create and maintain a full set of prehospital EBGs as a means of optimizing resource use.

The implementation and evaluation of an evidence-based statewide prehospital pain management protocol developed using the national prehospital evidence-based guideline model process for emergency medical services.

BACKGROUND: In 2008, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration funded the development of a model process for the development and implementation of evidence-based guidelines (EBGs) for emergency medical services (EMS). We report on the implementation and evaluation of an evidence-based prehospital pain management protocol developed using this model process. METHODS: An evidence-based protocol for prehospital management of pain resulting from injuries and burns was reviewed by the Protocol Review Committee (PRC) of the Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical Services Systems (MIEMSS). The PRC recommended revisions to the Maryland protocol that reflected recommendations in the EBG: weight-based dosing and repeat dosing of morphine. A training curriculum was developed and implemented using Maryland's online Learning Management System and successfully accessed by 3,941 paramedics and 15,969 BLS providers. Field providers submitted electronic patient care reports to the MIEMSS statewide prehospital database. Inclusion criteria were injured or burned patients transported by Maryland ambulances to Maryland hospitals whose electronic patient care records included data for level of EMS provider training during a 12-month preimplementation period and a 12-month postimplementation period from September 2010 through March 2012. We compared the percentage of patients receiving pain scale assessments and morphine, as well as the dose of morphine administered and the use of naloxone as a rescue medication for opiate use, before and after the protocol change. RESULTS: No differences were seen in the percentage of patients who had a pain score documented or the percent of patients receiving morphine before and after the protocol change, but there was a significant increase in the total dose and dose in mg/kg administered per patient. During the postintervention phase, patients received an 18% higher total morphine dose and a 14.9% greater mg/kg dose. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated that the implementation of a revised statewide prehospital pain management protocol based on an EBG developed using the National Prehospital Evidence-based Guideline Model Process was associated with an increase in dosing of narcotic pain medication consistent with that recommended by the EBG. No differences were seen in the percentage of patients receiving opiate analgesia or in the documentation of pain scores.

An Evidence-based Guideline for the air medical transportation of prehospital trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: Decisions about the transportation of trauma patients by helicopter are often not well informed by research assessing the risks, benefits, and costs of such transport. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this evidence-based guideline (EBG) is to recommend a strategy for the selection of prehospital trauma patients who would benefit most from aeromedical transportation. METHODS: A multidisciplinary panel was recruited consisting of experts in trauma, EBG development, and emergency medical services (EMS) outcomes research. Representatives of the Federal Interagency Committee on Emergency Medical Services (FICEMS), the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) (funding agency), and the Children's National Medical Center (investigative team) also contributed to the process. The panel used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology to guide question formulation, evidence retrieval, appraisal/synthesis, and formulate recommendations. The process followed the National Evidence-Based Guideline Model Process, which has been approved by the Federal Interagency Committee on EMS and the National EMS Advisory Council. RESULTS: Two strong and three weak recommendations emerged from the process, all supported only by low or very low quality evidence. The panel strongly recommended that the 2011 CDC Guideline for the Field Triage of Injured Patients be used as the initial step in the triage process, and that ground emergency medical services (GEMS) be used for patients not meeting CDC anatomic, physiologic, and situational high-acuity criteria. The panel issued a weak recommendation to use helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) for higher-acuity patients if there is a time-savings versus GEMS, or if an appropriate hospital is not accessible by GEMS due to systemic/logistical factors. The panel strongly recommended that online medical direction should not be required for activating HEMS. Special consideration was given to the potential need for local adaptation. CONCLUSIONS: Systematic and transparent methodology was used to develop an evidence-based guideline for the transportation of prehospital trauma patients. The recommendations provide specific guidance regarding the activation of GEMS and HEMS for patients of varying acuity. Future research is required to strengthen the data and recommendations, define optimal approaches for guideline implementation, and determine the impact of implementation on safety and outcomes including cost.

An Evidence-based Guideline for prehospital analgesia in trauma.

BACKGROUND: The management of acute traumatic pain is a crucial component of prehospital care and yet the assessment and administration of analgesia is highly variable, frequently suboptimal, and often determined by consensus-based regional protocols. OBJECTIVE: To develop an evidence-based guideline (EBG) for the clinical management of acute traumatic pain in adults and children by advanced life support (ALS) providers in the prehospital setting. Methods. We recruited a multi-stakeholder panel with expertise in acute pain management, guideline development, health informatics, and emergency medical services (EMS) outcomes research. Representatives of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (sponsoring agency) and a major children's research center (investigative team) also contributed to the process. The panel used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology to guide the process of question formulation, evidence retrieval, appraisal/synthesis, and formulation of recommendations. The process also adhered to the National Prehospital Evidence-Based Guideline (EBG) model process approved by the Federal Interagency Council for EMS and the National EMS Advisory Council. RESULTS: Four strong and three weak recommendations emerged from the process; two of the strong recommendations were linked to high- and moderate-quality evidence, respectively. The panel recommended that all patients be considered candidates for analgesia, regardless of transport interval, and that opioid medications should be considered for patients in moderate to severe pain. The panel also recommended that all patients should be reassessed at frequent intervals using a standardized pain scale and that patients should be re-dosed if pain persists. The panel suggested the use of specific age-appropriate pain scales. CONCLUSION: GRADE methodology was used to develop an evidence-based guideline for prehospital analgesia in trauma. The panel issued four strong recommendations regarding patient assessment and narcotic medication dosing. Future research should define optimal approaches for implementation of the guideline as well as the impact of the protocol on safety and effectiveness metrics.

An Evidence-based Guideline for Pediatric Prehospital Seizure Management Using GRADE Methodology.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this guideline is to recommend evidence-based practices for timely prehospital pediatric seizure cessation while avoiding respiratory depression and seizure recurrence. METHODS: A multidisciplinary panel was chosen based on expertise in pediatric emergency medicine, prehospital medicine, and/or evidence-based guideline development. The panel followed the National Prehospital EBG Model using the GRADE methodology to formulate questions, retrieve evidence, appraise the evidence, and formulate recommendations. The panel members initially searched the literature in 2009 and updated their searches in 2012. The panel finalized a draft of a patient care algorithm in 2012 that was presented to stakeholder organizations to gather feedback for necessary revisions. RESULTS: Five strong and ten weak recommendations emerged from the process; all but one was supported by low or very low quality evidence. The panel sought to ensure that the recommendations promoted timely seizure cessation while avoiding respiratory depression and seizure recurrence. The panel recommended that all patients in an active seizure have capillary blood glucose checked and be treated with intravenous (IV) dextrose or intramuscular (IM) glucagon if <60 mg/dL (3 mmol/L). The panel also recommended that non-IV routes (buccal, IM, or intranasal) of benzodiazepines (0.2 mg/kg) be used as first-line therapy for status epilepticus, rather than the rectal route. CONCLUSIONS: Using GRADE methodology, we have developed a pediatric seizure guideline that emphasizes the role of capillary blood glucometry and the use of buccal, IM, or intranasal benzodiazepines over IV or rectal routes. Future research is needed to compare the effectiveness and safety of these medication routes.

Pandemic Planning, Response, and Recovery for Pediatricians: A Focus on Health Equity and Social Determinants of Health.

This article summarizes how pediatricians may be uniquely positioned to mitigate the long-term trajectory of COVID-19 on the health and wellness of pediatric patients especially with regard to screening for social determinants of health that are recognized drivers of disparate health outcomes. Health inequities, that is, disproportionately deleterious health outcomes that affect marginalized populations, have been a major source of vulnerability in past public health emergencies and natural disasters. Recommendations are provided for pediatricians to collaborate with disaster planning networks and lead strategies for public health communication and community engagement in pediatric pandemic and disaster planning, response, and recovery efforts.

Child Health Advocacy: The Journey to Antiracism.

The last several years have seen accelerated activity and discourse directed at antiracism. Specifically following the 2020 murder of George Floyd, institutions across the country engaged in a range of introspective exercises and transparent reckonings examining their practices, policies, and history insofar as equity and racism is concerned. The authors of this article, both active protagonists in this domain, have been, and continue to be, part of ongoing national efforts and have learned much about the strategies and tactics necessary to initiate, engage, and sustain traction on the path to antiracism.

Does prearrival communication from a poison center to an emergency department decrease time to activated charcoal for pediatric poisoning?

OBJECTIVE: A poison center plays an important role in directing appropriate care, which is critical in reducing morbidity due to poisoning. Activated charcoal (AC) is one intervention for some poisonings. This study examined whether children with a poisoning who were preannounced by a poison center received AC earlier than patients without a referral. METHODS: A retrospective review of AC administration in children aged 0 to 18 years in a pediatric emergency department (ED) from 2000 to 2006 was performed. Abstracted covariates were poison center referral status, age, sex, acuity, disposition, transportation mode, triage time, and time of AC administration. Analysis of variance controlling for covariates tested the equality of mean time intervals between the groups with and without a poison center referral. RESULTS: Three hundred fifty-one cases met the inclusion criteria. One hundred thirty-five (39%) were male. Eighty cases (23%) had a poison center referral. Time from triage to charcoal administration for patients with a poison center referral was a mean of 59 (SD, 34) minutes. Time for the group without a referral was a mean of 71 (SD, 43) minutes (P = 0.0036). CONCLUSIONS: Advanced communication from a poison center was associated with earlier administration of AC in the ED for this population. Nevertheless, the duration to charcoal administration was frequently suboptimal. Triage and prehospital practices should be reexamined to improve timeliness of AC when indicated and consider exclusion of administration if beyond an appropriate time frame. Advanced notification should be the paradigm for all poison centers, and early response protocols for poison center referrals should be used by EDs.

Executions and Police Conflicts Involving Children, Adolescents and Young Adults.

Police violence in the United States represents a pressing public health crisis impacting youth, particularly youth of color. This article reviews the recent epidemiology of police executions and conflicts involving children, adolescents, and young adults. The roles of social determinants of health and centuries-long history of white supremacy and racism as root causes of adverse policing are emphasized. The article summarizes the evidence as to how direct and vicarious experiences of police violence impact youth academic, behavioral, and health outcomes. Recommendations are provided for pediatricians to address this public health crisis through clinical practice, education, advocacy, and research.

Experiences of underrepresented faculty in pediatric emergency medicine.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to elucidate the unique challenges faced by pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) physicians from racial/ethnic groups underrepresented in medicine (URiM). METHODS: This study is a subanalysis of data from 18 URiM faculty from a sample of 51 semistructured key informant interviews with PEM faculty in the top NIH-funded pediatric departments and highest-volume pediatric EDs in the country. Faculty are from eight hospitals representing a spectrum of geographic locations including the northeastern, midwestern, western, and southern regions of the country. RESULTS: Of 18 study participants, the majority were Black (72.2%) and female (83.3%). Three main thematic categories were identified: challenges related to race, support systems, and suggested strategies to improve diversity and inclusion in PEM. A common race-related experience was microaggressions from colleagues and patients. Additionally, when attempting to lead and assert themselves, URiM women in particular were perceived as "angry" and "intimidating" in a way that non-URiM peers were not. As a result of these negative experiences, participants described the need to go above and beyond to prove themselves. Such pressure produced stress and feelings of isolation. Participants combatted these stressors through resilience strategies such as formal mentorship and peer and family support. Participants indicated the need to increase diversity and create more inclusive work environments, which would benefit both URiM physician wellness and the diverse patients they serve. CONCLUSION: Those URiM in PEM face subtle racial discrimination at an institutional, peer, and patient level. The stress caused by this discrimination may further contribute to physician burnout in PEM. While URiMs adopt individual resilience strategies, their unique challenges suggest the need for departmental and institutional efforts to promote greater diversity and inclusion for physician wellness, retention, and quality patient care.