Rapid Ethnonutrition Assessment Method Is Useful to Prototype Dietary Assessments with a Focus on Local Biodiverse Food Plants.

Ethnonutrition is the study of diets in the context of food systems of different peoples and cultures. Its scope comprises native or local categories used to classify food, and also includes biodiverse food availability, local culinary techniques, seasonality, and cultural perceptions related to diet with nutritional implications. Here, we describe a method useful for gathering ethnonutrition data to design dietary interventions or assessments, the Rapid Ethnonutrition Assessment (REA). REA is a tool that offers food and nutrition research a broad biocultural view of diets, considering food system-level, by prototyping dietary assessments with high efficiency. This method permits us to prevent misinterpretations that lead to wrong conclusions in nutritional research.

Knowledge and use of wild food plants in areas of dry seasonal forests in Brazil.

The investigation aimed to compare the knowledge about food plants in rural communities of the Caatinga. The study was conducted in two rural communities in northeastern Brazil. Data collection utilized different ethnobotanical methods, including free listing, semi-structured interviews, and recall. Native species are less frequently consumed as food in both locations. Fruits are the most frequently cited wild resource, but in practice, most of this food availability potential is wasted. Despite community knowledge about wild species with potential food, few species are actually utilized, and thus, many plants are not included in the diets of the populations studied.

Biodiversity is overlooked in the diets of different social groups in Brazil.

Food biodiversity is essential for improving nutrition and reducing hunger in populations worldwide. However, in middle and low-income countries, the biodiversity of food production does not necessarily represent food consumption patterns by population. We used Brazil, one of the world's megabiodiverse countries, as a case study to investigate the following questions: what is the prevalence of consumption of biodiverse foods in Brazil, and what are the socioeconomic factors that influence their consumption throughout the country? We used data from a Brazilian representative national dietary survey to estimate the frequency of food consumption of unconventional food plants, edible mushrooms, and wild meat, in according to socioeconomic variables. Thus, we investigated the socioeconomic predictors of Unconventional Food Plants consumption using methods of Machine Learning (ML) and multiple zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) regression. We showed that biodiverse food consumption in Brazil is low, just related by 1.3% of the population, varying in according to area, ethnicity, age, food insecurity, sex, and educational level. Our findings of low utilization of biodiversity suggest an important mismatch between the rich biodiversity of the country and its representation in the human diet.

A new application for the optimal foraging theory: the extraction of medicinal plants.

The Optimal Foraging Theory was used to identify possible patterns in bark extraction and the selective cutting of Anadenanthera colubrina (Angico), a medicinal plant. The hypotheses were built on two approaches: selection of collection place and bark exploitation occurrence in only one of these resource areas. The results suggest that the distance that must be traveled to reach each gathering site determines the extent of the extraction process, showing that people minimize the time and energy spent in A. colubrina collection. The availability of each site appears not to influence the operation. The resource amount was the optimized variable for bark extraction, which was analyzed in only one collection zone. In contrast to the phenomenon of collection place selection, the distance between angico individuals, the management period, and the tannin content did not affect bark extraction. This study also discusses how certain cultural aspects influence the extraction of angico.

Plant stem bark extractivism in the northeast semiarid region of Brazil: a new aport to utilitarian redundancy model.

We use the model of utilitarian redundancy as a basis for research. This model provides predictions that have not been tested by other research. In this sense, we sought to investigate the stem bark extraction between preferred and less-preferred species by a rural community in Caatinga environment. In addition, we sought to explain local preferences to observe if preferred plants have a higher content of tannins than less-preferred species. For this, we selected seven preferred species and seven less-preferred species from information obtained from semistructured interviews applied to 49 informants. Three areas of vegetation around the community were also selected, in which individuals were tagged, and were measured the diameter at ground level (DGL) diameter at breast height (DBH), and measurements of available and extracted bark areas. Samples of bark of the species were also collected for the evaluation of tannin content, obtained by the method of radial diffusion. From the results, the preferred species showed a greater area of bark removed. However, the tannin content showed no significant differences between preferred and less-preferred plants. These results show there is a relationship between preference and use, but this preference is not related to the total tannins content.

The use of medicinal plants by migrant people: adaptation, maintenance, and replacement.

Given the importance of studying the knowledge, beliefs, and practices of migrant communities to understand the dynamics of plant resource use, we reviewed the scientific literature concerning the use of medicinal plants by migrant populations engaged in international or long-distance migrations. We considered the importance of two processes: (1) adaptation to the new flora of the host country (i.e., substitution and incorporation of plants in the pharmacopoeia) and (2) continued use and acquisition of the original flora from migrants' home countries (i.e., importation, cultivation, and/or continued use of plants that grow in both host and home environments). We suggest that, depending on the specific context and conditions of migration, different processes that determine the use and/or selection of plants as herbal medicines may become predominant.

Levels of tannins and flavonoids in medicinal plants: evaluating bioprospecting strategies.

There are several species of plants used by traditional communities in the Brazilian semiarid. An approach used in the search for natural substances that possess therapeutic value is ethnobotany or ethnopharmacology. Active substances that have phenolic groups in their structure have great pharmacological potential. To establish a quantitative relationship between the species popularly considered to be antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and antidiarrheal, the contents of tannins and flavonoids were determined. The plant selection was based on an ethnobotanical survey conducted in a community located in the municipality of Altinho, northeastern Brazil. For determination of tannin content was utilized the technique of radial diffusion, and for flavonoids, an assay based on the complexation of aluminum chloride. The group of plants with antimicrobial indications showed a higher content of tannins compared to the control groups. The results evidence suggests a possible relationship between these compounds and the observed activity.

Ichthyofauna used in traditional medicine in Brazil.

Fish represent the group of vertebrates with the largest number of species and the largest geographic distribution; they are also used in different ways by modern civilizations. The goal of this study was to compile the current knowledge on the use of ichthyofauna in zootherapeutic practices in Brazil, including ecological and conservational commentary on the species recorded. We recorded a total of 85 species (44 fresh-water species and 41 salt-water species) used for medicinal purposes in Brazil. The three most commonly cited species were Hoplias malabaricus, Hippocampus reidi, and Electrophorus electricus. In terms of conservation status, 65% of species are in the "not evaluated" category, and 14% are in the "insufficient data" category. Three species are in the "vulnerable" category: Atlantoraja cyclophora, Balistes vetula, and Hippocampus erectus. Currently, we cannot avoid considering human pressure on the population dynamics of these species, which is an essential variable for the conservation of the species and the ecosystems in which they live and for the perpetuation of traditional medical practices.

Intracultural variation in the knowledge of medicinal plants in an urban-rural community in the atlantic forest from northeastern Brazil.

This study assessed the intracultural knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in an urban-rural community in an Atlantic forest fragment in northeastern Brazil. We examined the importance of native and exotic species and the effects of gender and age on that knowledge. We also compared data obtained from different groups of informants (local experts and general community). We conducted 194 interviews between June 2007 and January 2008, using the freelist technique and semistructured forms to collect ethnobotanical data. Information obtained from the community was compared with that from six local experts who participated in a survey in 2003. From a total of 209 ethnospecies, exotic and herbaceous plants presented higher richness. With respect to the number of citations, women and older informants were shown to know a higher number of medicinal plants. Comparing knowledge of local experts with that of the general community, we noted that experts know a similar wealth of plant families and therapeutic indications, but the community knows a greater species richness. These results indicate that local experts may provide useful information for studies that search for a quick diagnosis of the knowledge of a given community.

Caatinga revisited: ecology and conservation of an important seasonal dry forest.

Besides its extreme climate conditions, the Caatinga (a type of tropical seasonal forest) hosts an impressive faunal and floristic biodiversity. In the last 50 years there has been a considerable increase in the number of studies in the area. Here we aimed to present a review of these studies, focusing on four main fields: vertebrate ecology, plant ecology, human ecology, and ethnobiology. Furthermore, we identify directions for future research. We hope that the present paper will help defining actions and strategies for the conservation of the biological diversity of the Caatinga.

The ecological apparency hypothesis and the importance of useful plants in rural communities from northeastern Brazil: an assessment based on use value.

The ecological apparency hypothesis in ethnobotanical studies predicts that the apparent plants (i.e., the most easily found in the vegetation) would be the most commonly collected and used by people. To test this hypothesis, it has been used the concept of use value (VU), which measures the relative importance of useful plants for a group of people. However, the use value has got some limitations, including the fact that it does not distinguish "current use" (plants which are effectively used) from "potential use" (well known plants, however not used). Therefore, this study has tested whether the obtained results through three different use value calculations could be useful in testing the ecological apparency hypothesis. These calculations have included the current use value, the potential use value, and the general use value. It has been carried out a vegetation survey and an interview for residents from the rural communities from Barrocas and Cachoeira (Soledade, Paraíba, Brazil). It has been used Spearman's coefficient to correlate phytosociological and ethnobotanical data. It has been observed that phytosociological parameters in Cachoeira were not correlated with any of the use values calculations, except the relationship between the current use value and the relative dominance (r(s) = 0.57; p < 0.05). In Barrocas, every use value calculation was correlated with the basal area and the relative dominance. When each category of use is analyzed separately, it has been observed that there was no correlation between the use value and the phytosociological parameters, except for the construction category, in which the current use value in Cachoeira was correlated with the relative dominance (r(s) = 0.63; p < 0.05), importance value (r(s) = 0.67; p < 0.01), relative frequency (r(s) = 0.71; p < 0.05), and relative density (r(s) = 0.72; p < 0.01). In Barrocas, the UVc for the construction category was correlated with relative frequency (r(s) = 0.69; p < 0.05) and relative density (r(s) = 0.66; p < 0.01). These results have suggested that, the use value calculation, which takes into consideration just the current use of the species, is the one that best fits in the ecological apparency hypothesis.

Analysis of umbu (Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae)) in different landscape management regimes: a process of incipient domestication?

Plant domestication is an evolutionary process guided by human groups who modify the landscape for their needs. The objective of this study was to evaluate the phenotypic variations between populations of Spondias tuberosa Arruda (umbuzeiro) when subjected to different local landscape management strategies. The influence of the landscape management system on these populations was evaluated in five identified regional units (mountains, base of mountains, pastures, cultivated areas and home gardens). Ten individuals were randomly selected from each region and subjected to morphological and chemical fruit analysis. The diversity index, based on Simpson's index, was determined for the different populations. We then evaluated the morphological differences between the individual fruits from the distinct landscape areas. We observed no significant differences in morphological diversity between the areas studied. Our data suggest that the umbuzeiro specimens in this region may be in the process of incipient domestication.

Habitat influence on antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations of Spondias tuberosa.

CONTEXT: Different habitat conditions can be responsible for the production of secondary metabolites and for the antioxidant properties of plant products. OBJECTIVE: Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether the antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations in the stem bark of Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae) varied with collection site. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The bark was collected from 25 individual trees, distributed in five different landscape units, as follows: agroforestry gardens, areas of pastures, maize cultivation areas, mountain areas and mountain bases, with the former 3 being considered as anthropogenic habitats, and the latter 2 considered as habitats with native coverage. The study was conducted in the rural area of the city of Altinho, Pernambuco State (Northeast Brazil). The DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method was used to measure the antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations were evaluated by using the radial diffusion method. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that there were no significant differences among the tannin concentrations of the individuals from the native (6.27% ± 1.75) or anthropogenic areas (4.63% ± 2.55), (H = 2.24; p > 0.05). In contrast, there were significant differences (H = 5.1723; p < 0.05) among the CE50 means of the antioxidant activities of the individuals from the native (32.10 µg/ml ± 5.27) and anthropogenic areas (27.07 µg/ml ± 2.29). However, correlations between the tannin concentrations and antioxidant activity of the extracts were not observed in the native (r = 0.39; p > 0.05) or in the anthropogenic areas (r = 0.38; p > 0.05). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Because the variation of the antioxidant capacity of S. tuberosa bark was not accompanied by a variation in the tannin concentration, this property may be related to the presence of other metabolite(s).

Comparative study of the antimicrobial activity of native and exotic plants from the Caatinga and Atlantic Forest selected through an ethnobotanical survey.

CONTEXT: The idea that many commonly used medicinal plants may lead to the discovery of new drugs has encouraged the study of local knowledge of these resources. OBJECTIVE: An ethnobotanical survey of species traditionally used for the treatment of infectious diseases was undertaken in two areas of northeastern Brazil: one in the Caatinga (dry forest) and another in the Atlantic Forest (humid forest). MATERIALS: Initially, diffusion tests using paper disks and subsequently, for extracts presenting significant results (inhibition halos above 15 mm), minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined. The activity was evaluated as a percentage for each species, comparing the diameters of the inhibition halos and the number of positive results against the seven microorganisms studied. Extracts were classified into three categories: strong activity-species with halos exceeding 16 mm, moderate activity-species with halos between 13 mm and 15 mm and low activity-species with halos below 12 mm. We selected 34 species, 20 from the Caatinga and 14 from the Atlantic Forest. RESULTS: In the Caatinga, 50% of the 20 plant extracts studied had strong antimicrobial activity, 25% had moderate activity and 15% had low activity. In the Atlantic Forest, 28.5% of the 14 plant extracts studied showed strong activity, with 14.5% having moderate activity and 28.5% having low activity. The microorganism that was most susceptible to the extracts from the Caatinga, was Mycobacterium smegmatis; 85% of the species tested were able to inhibit its growth. The organism that was susceptible to the highest number of plant species (71%) from the Atlantic Forest was Staphylococcus aureus. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Extracts from the Caatinga showed a trend of superior antimicrobial activity compared to the species from the Atlantic Forest, in terms of both inhibiting a greater variety of microorganisms and demonstrating higher activity against susceptible strains.

Medicinal plants used as antitumor agents in Brazil: an ethnobotanical approach.

WE DESCRIBE THE MEDICINAL PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN REPORTED TO BE ANTITUMOR AGENTS AND THAT HAVE BEEN USED IN ETHNOBOTANIC RESEARCH IN BRAZIL TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: what is the abundance of plants reported to be antitumor in Brazil? Have the plant species used for tumor treatment in traditional Brazilian medicine been sufficiently examined scientifically? Our analysis included papers published between 1980 and 2008. A total of 84 medicinal plant species were reported to be used for cancer and tumor prevention or treatment; 69.05% of these were cited as being used for the treatment of tumors and cancer in general and 30.95% for specific tumors or cancers. The plants that were cited at a higher frequency were Aloe vera, Euphorbia tirucalli, and Tabebuia impetiginosa. At least, one pharmacological study was found for 35.71% of the species. Majority of the studies selected were conducted in rural communities and urban areas and in areas with traditional healers in Brazil. We found the following molecules to be the most studied in vitro and in vivo: silibinin, ß-lapachone, plumbagin and capsaicin. The species addressed here constitute interesting objects for future studies to various professionals in the field of natural products.

Pressure indicators of wood resource use in an Atlantic forest area, northeastern Brazil.

Wood resources are often used to support the needs of the local population. In order to protect biodiversity and resources, conservation strategies need to consider what types of wood use have the strongest impacts on forested areas. This study aimed to identify the use categories that put higher pressure on an Atlantic forest region located in the municipality of Igarassu in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. To conduct the study, we measured the volume of all wood products in 62 surveyed residences and registered the average replacement time for such products. The fuelwood category was most important locally and accounted for 92% of annual wood consumption. However, the construction category harvests more destructively and concentrates on the consumption of a few wood species. Therefore we recommend the fuelwood category to be the main focus of conservation effforts. In addition, the most important species for construction purposes (e.g., Eschweilera ovata (Cambess.) Miers, Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel) J.F. Macbr. and Pogonophora schomburgkiana Miers ex Benth) should also be considered as a priority for conservation.

Insights into the search for new drugs from traditional knowledge: an ethnobotanical and chemical-ecological perspective.

CONTEXT: The variety of pathways for the introduction of a species into the medical collection of traditional communities has led many researchers to question the processes of selection and the use of these resources. A better comprehension of these processes will allow us to understand the cultural dynamics that are related to traditional medical practices, as well as to provide us with new ways in which to facilitate the exploration of natural products. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to test the predictive power of the plant apparency hypothesis as it relates to medicinal plant selection by the rural communities of the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest in northeast Brazil. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Initially, a survey of the medicinal plants used by these communities was conducted using semistructured interviews. Subsequently, data on the life strategies and the habits of each species were collected. More detailed data on the specific plant parts indicated in interviews were also collected. A phytochemical screening for seven classes of chemical compounds was carried out to test the predictions of the plant apparency hypothesis. RESULTS: The medicinal plants from the Caatinga (especially those that are considered to be trees in habit) have a strong ability to accumulate quantitative compounds, and these species are most likely to be plants with significant biological activity related to these compounds; the medicinal plants from the Atlantic Forest, on the other hand, tend to have a high occurrence of qualitative compounds, especially in herbaceous life forms. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the plant apparency hypothesis does not adequately explain the selection of medicinal plants in the two environments studied. Our findings highlight some important implications for bioprospecting that need to be further tested experimentally, and through systematic studies, in different regions.

What interferes with conducting free lists? A comparative ethnobotanical experiment.

BACKGROUND: The free list, also written "freelist", or "free recall", is an ethnographic method that characterizes the local knowledge of a population about a given cultural domain. However, there is still much to elucidate about the variables that can influence the number of items that participants cite using this technique. This study applied a casual-comparative experimental design to analyze whether 3 months' time, age, and external stimuli influence the similarity of plant free lists applied at different times. METHODS: Data was collected from 103 farmers from the rural community Alto dos Canutos, in the municipality of Picos, Piauí state, Brazil. Two free lists were conducted at two different times, with an interval of three months between them. Subsequently, the similarity between the first and second free lists of each participant was calculated using the Jaccard Similarity Index. The generalized linear model (GLM) with binomial errors and stepwise approach was used to analyze the effects of age and external stimuli on information collection when comparing free lists applied at different times. RESULTS: Participants' age influenced the information that the free lists collected, demonstrating that the older the participants, the lower the similarity among the free lists. Among the external stimuli analyzed, only the presence of third parties influenced the content of the free lists at the time of the interview. However, contrary to expectations, third-party presence positively influenced the similarity of the lists. CONCLUSION: The results show that the studied variables age and third-party presence can influence the capture of knowledge. These findings warrant future research into the influences' causes and their potential mitigation, e.g., by isolation or by breaking the medicinal plant domain into focused sub-domains and conducting simpler, successive free-lists, which can mitigate memory issues.

Safety assessment of Bauhinia cheilantha Bong. Steud leaves extract: acute, sub-acute toxicity, antioxidant, and antihemolytic evaluations.

Bauhinia cheilantha (Fabaceae), known popularly as pata-de-vaca and mororó has been largely recommended treating several diseases in folk medicine. However, information on safe doses and use is still scarce. The goal was to evaluate in-vitro antioxidant and antihemolytic and also acute and sub-acute toxicity effects of hydroalcoholic extract from B. cheilantha leaves (HaEBcl). The identification of the compounds in the HaEBcl was performed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Antioxidant and hemolytic activity of HaEBcl was evaluated in vitro. To study acute toxicity, female mice received HaEBcl in a single dose of 300 and 2.000 mg/kg. Later, sub-acute toxicity was introduced in both female and male mice by oral gavage at 300, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg for 28 consecutive days. Hematological and biochemical profiles were created from the blood as well as from histological analysis of the liver. HaEBcl is rich in flavonoids (quercitrin and afzelin), has no hemolytic effects and moderate antioxidant effects in vitro. Acute toxicity evaluation showed that lethal dose (LD50) of HaEBcl was over 2000 mg/kg. Sub-acute toxicity testing elicited no clinical signs of toxicity, morbidity, or mortality. The hematological and biochemical parameters discounted any chance of hepatic or kidney toxicity. Furthermore, histopathological data did not reveal any disturbance in liver morphology in treated mice. Results indicate that HaEBcl has no hemolytic and moderate antioxidant effects in vitro. In addition, HaEBcl dosage levels up to 2000 mg/kg are nontoxic and can be considered safe for mammals.

Antiproliferative activity, antioxidant capacity and tannin content in plants of semi-arid northeastern Brazil.

The objective of this study was to evaluate antiproliferative activity, antioxidant capacity and tannin content in plants from semi-arid northeastern Brazil (Caatinga). For this study, we selected 14 species and we assayed the methanol extracts for antiproliferative activity against the HEp-2 (laryngeal cancer) and NCI-H292 (lung cancer) cell lines using the (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazole) (MTT) method. In addition, the antioxidant activity was evaluated with the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) assay, and the tannin content was determined by the radial diffusion method. Plants with better antioxidant activity (expressed in a dose able to decrease the initial DPPH concentration by 50%, or IC50) and with higher levels of tannins were: Poincianella pyramidalis (42.95±1.77 µg/mL IC50 and 8.17±0.64 tannin content), Jatropha mollissima (54.09±4.36µg/mL IC50 and 2.35±0.08 tannin content) and Anadenanthera colubrina (73.24±1.47 µg/mL IC50 and 4.41±0.47 tannin content). Plants with enhanced antiproliferative activity (% living cells) were Annona muricata (24.94±0.74 in NCI-H292), Lantana camara (25.8±0.19 in NCI-H292), Handroanthus impetiginosus (41.8±0.47 in NCI-H292) and Mentzelia aspera (45.61±1.94 in HEp-2). For species with better antioxidant and antiproliferative activities, we suggest future in vitro and in vivo comparative studies with other pharmacological models, and to start a process of purification and identification of the possible molecule(s) responsible for the observed pharmacological activity. We believe that the flora of Brazilian semi-arid areas can be a valuable source of plants rich in tannins, cytotoxic compounds and antioxidant agents.