Chemical Analysis and Evaluation of Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Photoprotective Activities of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. (Anacardiaceae).

Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. is a native plant of Caatinga which has high concentrations of compounds capable of absorbing ultraviolet light, suggesting its potential application for the development of sunscreen preparations. After its identification and collection, this vegetable drug was submitted to a physicochemical analysis through the preparation of ethanolic extract. The phytochemical screening and analysis of extracts were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) evaluation. The antioxidant activity of the extract was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method and ß-carotene bleaching test. Inhibitory hemolytic activity and morphological deformation of erythrocytes induced by H2O2 were also demonstrated and the antimicrobial activity was analyzed by the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) method. For the in vitro determination of the sun protection factor (SPF), the spectrophotometric method was used. From the analyses carried out with this species, this plant showed significant results for the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, as well as sunscreen action. Important flavonoids were identified. These data are an important step for the development of new photoprotective cosmetic with Caatinga species, revealing importance and representing another incentive for the preservation of the species involved and analyzed in the study.

Levels of tannins and flavonoids in medicinal plants: evaluating bioprospecting strategies.

There are several species of plants used by traditional communities in the Brazilian semiarid. An approach used in the search for natural substances that possess therapeutic value is ethnobotany or ethnopharmacology. Active substances that have phenolic groups in their structure have great pharmacological potential. To establish a quantitative relationship between the species popularly considered to be antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and antidiarrheal, the contents of tannins and flavonoids were determined. The plant selection was based on an ethnobotanical survey conducted in a community located in the municipality of Altinho, northeastern Brazil. For determination of tannin content was utilized the technique of radial diffusion, and for flavonoids, an assay based on the complexation of aluminum chloride. The group of plants with antimicrobial indications showed a higher content of tannins compared to the control groups. The results evidence suggests a possible relationship between these compounds and the observed activity.

Intracultural variation in the knowledge of medicinal plants in an urban-rural community in the atlantic forest from northeastern Brazil.

This study assessed the intracultural knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in an urban-rural community in an Atlantic forest fragment in northeastern Brazil. We examined the importance of native and exotic species and the effects of gender and age on that knowledge. We also compared data obtained from different groups of informants (local experts and general community). We conducted 194 interviews between June 2007 and January 2008, using the freelist technique and semistructured forms to collect ethnobotanical data. Information obtained from the community was compared with that from six local experts who participated in a survey in 2003. From a total of 209 ethnospecies, exotic and herbaceous plants presented higher richness. With respect to the number of citations, women and older informants were shown to know a higher number of medicinal plants. Comparing knowledge of local experts with that of the general community, we noted that experts know a similar wealth of plant families and therapeutic indications, but the community knows a greater species richness. These results indicate that local experts may provide useful information for studies that search for a quick diagnosis of the knowledge of a given community.

Habitat influence on antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations of Spondias tuberosa.

CONTEXT: Different habitat conditions can be responsible for the production of secondary metabolites and for the antioxidant properties of plant products. OBJECTIVE: Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether the antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations in the stem bark of Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae) varied with collection site. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The bark was collected from 25 individual trees, distributed in five different landscape units, as follows: agroforestry gardens, areas of pastures, maize cultivation areas, mountain areas and mountain bases, with the former 3 being considered as anthropogenic habitats, and the latter 2 considered as habitats with native coverage. The study was conducted in the rural area of the city of Altinho, Pernambuco State (Northeast Brazil). The DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method was used to measure the antioxidant activity and tannin concentrations were evaluated by using the radial diffusion method. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that there were no significant differences among the tannin concentrations of the individuals from the native (6.27% ± 1.75) or anthropogenic areas (4.63% ± 2.55), (H = 2.24; p > 0.05). In contrast, there were significant differences (H = 5.1723; p < 0.05) among the CE50 means of the antioxidant activities of the individuals from the native (32.10 µg/ml ± 5.27) and anthropogenic areas (27.07 µg/ml ± 2.29). However, correlations between the tannin concentrations and antioxidant activity of the extracts were not observed in the native (r = 0.39; p > 0.05) or in the anthropogenic areas (r = 0.38; p > 0.05). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Because the variation of the antioxidant capacity of S. tuberosa bark was not accompanied by a variation in the tannin concentration, this property may be related to the presence of other metabolite(s).

Medicinal plants used as antitumor agents in Brazil: an ethnobotanical approach.

WE DESCRIBE THE MEDICINAL PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN REPORTED TO BE ANTITUMOR AGENTS AND THAT HAVE BEEN USED IN ETHNOBOTANIC RESEARCH IN BRAZIL TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: what is the abundance of plants reported to be antitumor in Brazil? Have the plant species used for tumor treatment in traditional Brazilian medicine been sufficiently examined scientifically? Our analysis included papers published between 1980 and 2008. A total of 84 medicinal plant species were reported to be used for cancer and tumor prevention or treatment; 69.05% of these were cited as being used for the treatment of tumors and cancer in general and 30.95% for specific tumors or cancers. The plants that were cited at a higher frequency were Aloe vera, Euphorbia tirucalli, and Tabebuia impetiginosa. At least, one pharmacological study was found for 35.71% of the species. Majority of the studies selected were conducted in rural communities and urban areas and in areas with traditional healers in Brazil. We found the following molecules to be the most studied in vitro and in vivo: silibinin, ß-lapachone, plumbagin and capsaicin. The species addressed here constitute interesting objects for future studies to various professionals in the field of natural products.

Antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. and Sapium glandulosum (L.) Morong from Northeastern Brazil.

The aims of this study were to quantify the phenolic content and evaluate the antioxidant potential of extracts from the bark and leaves of C. pyramidalis and S. glandulosum. The total phenolic content (TPC) and total tannin content (TTC) were determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method, and the total flavonoids content (TFC) was measured via complexation with aluminum chloride. The antioxidant activity was evaluated with DPPH (2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FIC (ferrous ion chelating) assays. The TPC ranged between 135.55 ± 9.85 and 459.79 ± 11.65 tannic acid equivalents (TAE) in mg/g material (mg TAE/g). The leaves of both species contained high levels of tannins and flavonoids. The crude ethanol extracts (CEE) from the bark of C. pyramidalis showed high antioxidant activity when compared to ascorbic acid and rutin, whereas the CEE from the leaves was more efficient in chelating ferrous ions. C. pyramidalis had very high phenolic content and anti-radical activity, which indicates a need for further studies aimed at the purification and identification of compounds responsible for the antioxidant activity.

Insights into the search for new drugs from traditional knowledge: an ethnobotanical and chemical-ecological perspective.

CONTEXT: The variety of pathways for the introduction of a species into the medical collection of traditional communities has led many researchers to question the processes of selection and the use of these resources. A better comprehension of these processes will allow us to understand the cultural dynamics that are related to traditional medical practices, as well as to provide us with new ways in which to facilitate the exploration of natural products. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to test the predictive power of the plant apparency hypothesis as it relates to medicinal plant selection by the rural communities of the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest in northeast Brazil. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Initially, a survey of the medicinal plants used by these communities was conducted using semistructured interviews. Subsequently, data on the life strategies and the habits of each species were collected. More detailed data on the specific plant parts indicated in interviews were also collected. A phytochemical screening for seven classes of chemical compounds was carried out to test the predictions of the plant apparency hypothesis. RESULTS: The medicinal plants from the Caatinga (especially those that are considered to be trees in habit) have a strong ability to accumulate quantitative compounds, and these species are most likely to be plants with significant biological activity related to these compounds; the medicinal plants from the Atlantic Forest, on the other hand, tend to have a high occurrence of qualitative compounds, especially in herbaceous life forms. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the plant apparency hypothesis does not adequately explain the selection of medicinal plants in the two environments studied. Our findings highlight some important implications for bioprospecting that need to be further tested experimentally, and through systematic studies, in different regions.

Native medicinal plants commercialized in Brazil - priorities for conservation.

A majority of the native medicinal plants that are commercialized in Brazil are harvested from natural populations. In addition to this essentially unrestrained collecting, these plants have been heavily impacted by the cutting and the fragmentation of forest formations throughout the country. Considering the limited availability of natural resources, threats to species diversity, and the necessity of conservation efforts in light of the rapid exhaustion of natural ecosystems, it is becoming exceedingly important to establish conservation priorities. The present work sought to identify the native medicinal plants harvested for industrial purposes and to establish conservation priorities for the species of highest commercial value. To that end, a survey of Brazilian industrial products that use medicinal plants was undertaken in 54 shops in the city of Recife (Pernambuco, NE Brazil). The survey noted information concerning the commercial name of the product, its plant composition and pharmaceutical presentation, therapeutic indications, as well as the laboratory that produced it. Only native species were considered. A total of 74 different native species used to produce more than 300 types of products were encountered in the present survey. Twelve species demonstrated significant versatility (Species which had the highest numbers of different therapeutic indications and body systems), and 58.33% of these plants were trees. Destructive collecting predominates (58.11%), greatly affecting taxa collected exclusively from wild populations (86.49%). The intensive use of exclusively wild species and the destructive harvesting techniques employed in gathering them create serious problems that will threaten the availability of these resources to future generations.

Gastroprotective effect of ethyl acetate extract from Avicennia schaueriana Stapf & Leechman and underlying mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE: Avicennia schaueriana Stapf is an endemic mangrove species widely used by traditional Brazilian communities as a folk remedy for the treatment of rheumatism, ulcers, and skin wounds. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the gastroprotective potential of the ethyl acetate extract from the leaves of A. schaueriana (As-AcOEt). METHODS: Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode-array detection and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS) was performed to identify chemical constituents of the ethyl acetate extract from the leaves ofA. schaueriana. Total phenols, flavonoids and tannins were determined and antioxidant activity was evaluated using the DPPH and ABTS methods. The acute toxicity of As-AcOEt and gastroprotective activity on HCl/ethanol-induced gastric ulcers were assessed and mechanisms of action involving the role of nitric oxide, sulfhydryl compounds, and prostaglandins were investigated. RESULTS: Terpenes, flavonoids and tannins were detected in the extract. As-AcOEt exhibited antioxidant activity, with an EC50 of 42.2 ± 4.4 µg/mL (DPPH) and 73.2% inhibition of ABTS radicals. UPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS analysis identified gallic acid, gallic acid derivative, ellagic acid, myricetin pentoside, myricetin deoxyhexose, quercetin pentoside, quercetin deoxyhexose, and other compounds. Gallic acid was isolated in this species for the first time. During the acute toxicity test, no deaths or changes occurred in the variables evaluated. In the ethanol-induced ulcer model, As-AcOEt reduced the ulcerative lesion index, with 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg achieving 83.8, 88.5 and 86.9% inhibition, respectively. MPO levels decreased and the gastric mucosa of the animals treated with the extract was preserved. Pre-treatment with N-omega-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; NO blocker) or carbenoxolone (CBXN; NP-SH blocker) reversed the gastroprotective effect of As-AcOEt, but this effect was not reversed with the previous administration of indomethacin. CONCLUSION: The present findings reveal that the extract from the leaves ofA. schaueriana has gastroprotective effects, suggesting the involvement of nitric oxide and nonprotein sulfhydryl compounds, but not prostaglandin. Therefore, the use of A. schaueriana in Brazilian folk medicine for the treatment of gastric disorders has a scientific basis.

A new approach to study medicinal plants with tannins and flavonoids contents from the local knowledge.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The present work tested the power of different methodological strategies for identifying plants that could be interesting in terms of their phenolic compounds (especially flavonoids and tannins) by comparing a new index in which priority-determining criteria are based on the free-listing technique as well as on two randomized methods for choosing plants within an ethnodirected based approach. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present study was undertaken in the rural area of the municipality of Altinho located in the central region of Pernambuco State, northeastern Brazil. The ethnobotanical survey was divided into three different stages. The first stage was a general survey of 101 individuals on the use and knowledge of medicinal plants within the community. During the second stage local specialists were selected on the basis of the quality and quantity of information they offered during the initial phase of the investigation. The third stage consisted of returning to the specialists a final time in order to apply the free-listing technique. We also assumed that a plant could demonstrate anti-inflammatory and healing effects even without the presence of the compounds of interest of this study. RESULTS: There is a strong association between tannin content and the effects popularly attributed to wound-healing and anti-inflammatory plants. No relationships were observed between plants used by the community to treat inflammation or healing with their flavonoid contents. CONCLUSION: Thus, identifying Caatinga medicinal plants known with anti-inflammatory activity and healing capacities is a good criterion for identifying species with high levels of tannins, although these same criteria are not useful for identifying plants with high flavonoid contents.

Medicinal and magic plants from a public market in northeastern Brazil.

Markets are public spaces in which many kinds of products are sold, as well as places of cultural information exchange. These spaces are distinctive for each given culture or society as they represent small-scale reproductions of that region's cultural and biological diversity. We carried out ethnobotanical studies in an important traditional market in the city of Recife (Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil) in two distinct years, 1995 and 2002. Our objectives were to compare the taxonomic richness of the plants being sold there in these different years, to investigate differences between the species' relative importance, and to present descriptions of their main uses. Considering the lack of ethnobotanical studies in these markets and the great methodological difficulties in gaining access to this type of information, we discuss the limitations of this kind of study and offer suggestions to deal with specific problems. Semi-structured interviews with the plant vendors were carried out in the market, along with other data-collection and analysis techniques common to ethnobotanical studies. A total of 136 species were recorded--an increase of 58 species between the two study periods--with significant differences among the proportions of families, genera, and species (p<0.05). Despite differences in the relative importance of species found in both surveys, there was an underlying trend maintaining the same species of greatest importance. Our data suggest that markets conserve their basic repertoire while at the same time act as open and dynamic systems that is enriched by adding new plants and their respective use-indications.

Use patterns and knowledge of medicinal species among two rural communities in Brazil's semi-arid northeastern region.

The present work seeks to quantify the knowledge of two rural communities in the semi-arid region of the state of Pernambuco (northeastern Brazil) concerning two species of native medicinal plants: "aroeira do sertão", Myracrodruon urundeuva (Engl.) Fr. All. (Anacardiaceae) and "angico", Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan (Mimosaceae). Semi-structured interviews were carried out, combined with a checklist/inventory method, which yielded different indexes for quantifying knowledge and use of these species. In addition, the reliability of local knowledge was tested using analytical techniques to determine actual tannin concentrations. Although both communities possess knowledge concerning these two species, one of them stood out in terms of the diversity of information presented (P < 0.05), a difference that may be related to its lower degree of modernization. In general, older people had a greater variety of information about these plants, although both men and women demonstrated similar knowledge. Of the 101 people interviewed in Riachão, 85% stated that they knew of uses for both species studied; in Ameixas, of the 55 interviewees, 63% responded that they knew of uses for Myracrodruon urundeuva, and 45% knew of uses for Anadenanthera colubrina. A total of 97 different uses were reported by all informants for the two species studied. Of these, 62 were mentioned in only a single community, confirming our hypothesis of differences in knowledge between them. Informants from both communities knew of a great variety of uses for these plants as well as a number of different collection techniques. We expected that knowledge about the two species would differ in relation to both gender and age, but this was only true for one of the communities. Greater concentrations of tannins were expected to be found consistently in the tree bark, but experimental data demonstrated that tannin concentrations can vary among plant parts during the year.

The Anticholinesterase Properties of Plants from the Northeast of Brazil Selected by an Ethnopharmacological Study for Disorders Relating to the Nervous System.

BACKGROUND: Various factors may trigger Alzheimer's disease and the cholinergic hypothesis, which is one of the most widely accepted, argues damage to the brain nuclei, may reduce the production of the choline acetyltransferase enzyme, and cause a decline in the synthesis of acetylcholine (ACh). Studies have thus focused on discovering molecules that are capable of inhibiting the action of cholinesterase enzymes that degrade ACh, thereby preventing the evolution of the disease. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study is to assess the anticholinesterase properties of extracts of medicinal plants in a semi-arid region of Northeast of Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The species were selected by way of an ethnobotanical study and were collected if there were some indications that they are related to the nervous system. The plant samples were extracted using hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol. Anticholinesterase activity in vitro was assessed by way of bioautography in thin layer chromatography and microassays in 96-well plates. RESULTS: Twenty-three species of plant were collected, and 75 extracts were analyzed. The bioautography revealed that 26.7% of the samples showed inhibitory activity against the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme. After the test for false positives, 8% of the samples were found to inhibit AChE. Thirty samples were analyzed by microassay (500 µg/mL), on which 86.7% showed moderate to powerful anticholinesterase activity. CONCLUSION: Of the extracts tested, Citrus limonum, Ricinus communis, and Senna occidentalis stand out as was the most promising in terms of anticholinesterase activity and may serve as a guide for the discovery and development of new substances for the treatment of AD. SUMMARY: The bioautography revealed that 26.7% of the samples showed inhibitory activity against the acetylcholinesterase enzymeSamples were analyzed by microassay (500 µg/mL), upon which 86.7% showed moderate to powerful anticholinesterase activityCitrus limonum, Ricinus communis, and Senna occidentalis stand out as being the most promising in terms of anticholinesterase activityC. limonum, R. communis, and S. occidentalis may serve as a guide for the discovery and development of new substances for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Abbreviations used: AChE: Acetilcolinesterase.

A comparison of knowledge about medicinal plants for three rural communities in the semi-arid region of northeast of Brazil.

AIM: The aim of this research was to understand the importance of native and exotic plants in local medical systems in the Caatinga of the Brazilian northeast, and the influence of socio-economic factors on the acquisition of knowledge about these resources. METHODS: A total of 55 people were interviewed in three rural communities using free list and semi-structured interviewes. RESULTS: A total of 108 ethnospecies were reported, 99 of which were identified; 43 of these were preferred by informants. Most of the plants cited were exotic (51) but the difference in diversity among these plants and native plants (48) was not considered significant (p>0.05). The exotic plants were predominantly herbaceous and used to cure diseases that native plants did not seem to treat. There were no differences between men's and women's knowledge of the plants (p>0.05). However, for some communities, factors such as age and income were correlated with the number of citations and indications for plants, which suggested that older people and those with higher income levels had more knowledge about these properties. CONCLUSION: The data presented in this study showed the importance of exotic species in the region studied and demonstrated that plant knowledge can be perceived as a way to diversify options for medical treatment in the area.

Medicinal plants popularly used in the Xingó region - a semi-arid location in Northeastern Brazil.

The aim of this study was to identify plant species among the diverse flora of the caatinga ecosystem that are used therapeutically. Research was undertaken in the municipalities of Piranhas and Delmiro Gouveia, in the Xingó region (state of Alagoas, NE Brazil). In order to identify the medicinal plants used in this region, semi-structured questionnaires were applied. The species cited were collected and sent to the Xingó Herbarium for taxonomic analysis. The relative importance (RI) of each species cited was calculated to verify their cultural importance. The therapeutic indications attributed to the species were classified under 16 body systems. A total of 187 medicinal species were cited, from 64 families and 128 genera. The main indications for medicinal plant use were against common colds, bronchitis, cardiovascular problems, kidney problems, inflammations in general, and as tranquilizers. Approximately 16% (30 plant species) were versatile in relation to their use, with an Relative Importance value over 1, having been indicated for up to nine body systems. The body systems that stood out the most were: the respiratory system, the gastrointestinal system, and infectious diseases. Most cited plant parts used for medicinal purposes were flowers, leaves, and inner stem bark.