Structural studies with inhibitors of the cell cycle regulatory kinase cyclin-dependent protein kinase 2.

Components of the cell cycle machinery are frequently altered in cancer. Many of these alterations affect the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and their regulation. Staurosporine and 7-hydroxystaurosporine (UCN-01) are two natural product kinase inhibitors originally identified as potent protein kinase C inhibitors. Staurosporine is non-selective and too toxic for use in therapy, but UCN-01 shows greater selectivity, and is in clinical trials. We have determined the crystal structures of staurosporine bound to monomeric CDK2 and UCN-01 bound to active phospho-CDK2/cyclin A. Both compounds mimic the hydrogen bonds made by the adenine moiety of ATP, and both exploit the non-polar nature of the adenine-binding site. In the complex with UCN-01, a hydrogen-bonded water molecule is incorporated into the non-polar cavity, which provides a partial polar character in the environment of the 7-hydroxyl group. Comparison of the ATP-binding site of CDK2 with that of other kinases reveals that in Chk1 kinase, a major target for UCN-01 in the cell, one of the surrounding residues, Ala144 in CDK2, is a serine in Chk1, thus providing a possible explanation for the effectiveness of UCN-01 against this kinase. For cells to exit mitosis, the CDKs must be completely inactivated, firstly by the ubiquintin-mediated destruction of the cyclins, followed by dephosphorylation of phospho-Thr160 (in CDK2) catalysed by the kinase-associated phosphatase and protein phosphatase 2C. We describe the structure of phospho-CDK2 in complex with kinase-associated phosphatase, and discuss the substrate recognition promoted by interactions that are remote from the catalytic site.

Biochemical and three-dimensional-structural study of the specific inhibition of protein kinase CK2 by [5-oxo-5,6-dihydroindolo-(1,2-a)quinazolin-7-yl]acetic acid (IQA).

IQA [[5-oxo-5,6-dihydro-indolo(1,2-a)quinazolin-7-yl]acetic acid] is a novel ATP/GTP site-directed inhibitor of CK2 ('casein kinase 2'), a pleiotropic and constitutively active protein kinase whose activity is abnormally high in transformed cells. The K (i) value of IQA (0.17 microM) is lower than those of other CK2 inhibitors reported so far. Tested at 10 microM concentration in the presence of 100 microM ATP, IQA almost suppresses CK2 activity in vitro, whereas it is ineffective or weakly effective on a panel of 44 protein kinases and on phosphoinositide 3-kinase. In comparison, other CK2 inhibitors, notably apigenin and quercetin, are more promiscuous. The in vivo efficacy of IQA has been assessed by using the fact that treatment of Jurkat cells with IQA inhibits endogenous CK2 in a dose-dependent manner. IQA has been co-crystallized with maize CK2alpha, which is >70% identical with its human homologue, and the structure of the complex has been determined at 1.68 A (1 A=0.1 nm) resolution. The inhibitor lies in the same plane occupied by the purine moiety of ATP with its more hydrophobic side facing the hinge region. Major contributions to the interaction are provided by hydrophobic forces and non-polar interactions involving the aromatic portion of the inhibitor and the hydrophobic residues surrounding the ATP-binding pocket, with special reference to the side chains of V53 (Val53), I66, M163 and I174. Consequently, mutants of human CK2alpha in which either V66 (the homologue of maize CK2alpha I66) or I174 is replaced by alanine are considerably less sensitive to IQA inhibition when compared with wild-type. These results provide new tools for deciphering the enigmatic role of CK2 in living cells and may pave the way for the development of drugs depending on CK2 activity.

Alternative binding modes of an inhibitor to two different kinases.

Protein kinases are targets for therapeutic agents designed to intervene in signaling processes in the diseased state. Most kinase inhibitors are directed towards the conserved ATP binding site. Because the essential features of this site are conserved in all eukaryotic protein kinases, it is generally assumed that the same compound will bind in a similar manner to different protein kinases. The inhibitor 4,5,6,7-tetrabromobenzotriazole (TBB) is a selective inhibitor for the protein kinase CK2 (IC50 1.6 micro m) (Sarno et al. (2001) FEBS Letts.496, 44-48). Three other kinases [cyclin-dependent protein kinase 2 (CDK2), phosphorylase kinase and glycogen synthase kinase 3beta] exhibit approximately 10-fold weaker affinity for TBB than CK2. We report the crystal structure of TBB in complex with phospho-CDK2-cyclin A at 2.2 A resolution and compare the interactions with those observed for TBB bound to CK2. TBB binds at the ATP binding site of both kinases. In CDK2, each of the four bromine atoms makes polar contacts either to main chain oxygens in the hinge region of the kinase or to water molecules, in addition to several van der Waals contacts. The mode of binding of TBB to CDK2 is different from that to CK2. TBB in CDK2 is displaced more towards the hinge region between the N- and C-terminal lobes and rotated relative to TBB in CK2. The ATP binding pocket is wider in CDK2 than in CK2 resulting in fewer van der Waals contacts but TBB in CK2 does not contact the hinge. The structures show that, despite the conservation of the ATP binding pocket, the inhibitor is able to exploit different recognition features so that the same compound can bind in different ways to the two different kinases.

Inhibition of protein kinase CK2 by anthraquinone-related compounds. A structural insight.

Protein kinases play key roles in signal transduction and therefore are among the most attractive targets for drug design. The pharmacological aptitude of protein kinase inhibitors is highlighted by the observation that various diseases with special reference to cancer are because of the abnormal expression/activity of individual kinases. The resolution of the three-dimensional structure of the target kinase in complex with inhibitors is often the starting point for the rational design of this kind of drugs, some of which are already in advanced clinical trial or even in clinical practice. Here we present and discuss three new crystal structures of ATP site-directed inhibitors in complex with "casein kinase-2" (CK2), a constitutively active protein kinase implicated in a variety of cellular functions and misfunctions. With the help of theoretical calculations, we disclose some key features underlying the inhibitory efficiency of anthraquinone derivatives, outlining three different binding modes into the active site. In particular, we show that a nitro group in a hydroxyanthraquinone scaffold decreases the inhibitory constants K(i) because of electron-withdrawing and resonance effects that enhance the polarization of hydroxylic substituents in paraposition.