Organophosphate Esters in Building Materials from China: Levels, Sources, Emissions, and Preliminary Assessment of Human Exposure.

Source characteristics and health risks of indoor organophosphate esters (OPEs) are limited by the lack of knowledge on emission processes. This study attempted to integrate the contents and emissions of OPEs from indoor building materials to assess human health effects. Thirteen OPEs were investigated in 80 pieces of six categories of building materials. OPEs are ubiquitous in the building materials and ∑13OPE contents varied significantly (p < 0.05) from 72.8 ng/g (seam agent) to 109,900 ng/g (wallpaper). Emission characteristics of OPEs from the building materials were examined based on a microchamber method. Depending on the sample category, the observed initial area-specific emission rates of ∑13OPEs varied from 154 ng/m2/h (carpet) to 2760 ng/m2/h (wooden floorboard). Moreover, the emission rate model was developed to predict the release levels of individual OPEs, quantify source contributions, and assess associated exposure risks. Source apportionments of indoor OPEs exhibited heterogeneities in multiple environmental media. The joint OPE contribution of wallpaper and wooden floorboard to indoor dust was up to 94.8%, while latex paint and wooden floorboard were the main OPE contributors to indoor air (54.2%) and surface (76.1%), respectively. Risk assessment showed that the carcinogenic risks of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (3.35 × 10-7) were close to the acceptable level (1 × 10-6) and deserved special attention.

Net-Zero Embodied Carbon in Buildings with Today's Available Technologies.

Greenhouse gas emissions from building construction─i.e., the embodied carbon in buildings─are a significant and growing contributor to the climate crisis. However, our understanding of how to decarbonize building construction remains limited. This study shows that net-zero embodied carbon in buildings is achievable across Japan by 2050 using currently available technologies: decarbonized electricity supply, low-carbon steel, low-carbon concrete, increased timber structures, optimized design, and enhanced building lifespan. The largest emissions savings would come from increased use of timber structures, with annual savings of up to ∼35% by 2050, even in cases where timber replaces low-carbon steel and concrete. Moreover, we show that an expanded domestic timber supply, coupled with responsible reforestation, could improve forest carbon uptake by up to ∼60% compared to the business-as-usual scenario, without the need to increase forest area. This is achieved through a forest-city carbon cycle that transfers carbon stocks of mature trees to cities as building materials and rejuvenates forests through reforestation. Collectively, our analysis demonstrates that the decarbonization of building construction depends not on future technological innovation, but rather on how we design and use buildings with the options we already have.

Detecting Moisture in Building Materials and Commercial Food adducts by 2-Hydroxy-naphthaldehyde Derived Chromo-Fluorogenic Chemosensor.

A great deal of effort has been put into developing a novel and cost-effective molecular probe for selective and sensitive recognition of trace amounts of water in organic solvents due to their tremendous advantages in industrial, pharmaceutical, and laboratory-scale chemistry. Herein, a cost-effective chemosensor L has been designed and studied for the detection of trace amounts of water. The addition of water to the DMSO solution of L exhibited an enhancement of fluorescence emission at 460 nm along with a color change from green to colorless. The spectral and color changes occurred due to the self-aggregation of L. The interaction between water and L was performed by dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and finally complemented by quantum mechanical calculation. The detection limit was found to be 0.0093 wt% in DMSO. The L also exhibits a fast visual response and is effectively applied to detect trace amounts of moisture in various food materials (salt, sugar, wheat and honey) and building materials (cement, fly ash, limestone and sand).

Radon Exhalation Rate: A Metrological Approach for Radiation Protection.

Radon, a radioactive inert gas that comes from the decay of naturally occurring radioactive species, poses a substantial health risk due to its involvement in lung cancer carcinogenesis. This work proposes a metrological approach for determining radon exhalation rates from diverse building materials. This methodology employs an electrostatic collection chamber for alpha spectrometry of radon isotopic decay products. Experimental evaluations were conducted particularly focusing on volcanic gray tuff from Sant'Agata de' Goti (Campania region, Italy), a material commonly utilized in construction, to assess radon exhalation rates. The study aligns with Legislative Decree 101/2020, a transposition of European Directive 59/2013/Euratom, highlighting the need to identify materials with a high risk of radon exhalation. Moreover, this work supports the goals of the Italian National Radon Action Plan related to the aforementioned decree, aiming to develop methodologies for estimating radon exhalation rates from building materials and improving radioprotection practices.

Status and barriers to circular bio-based building material adoption in developed economies: The case of Flanders, Belgium.

Circular bio-based building materials (CBBMs) provide a potential solution to reduce the climate impacts of buildings and offer opportunities to transition the construction industry to a circular model. Promoting the use of these materials can also bring economic, environmental, and social benefits from valorising biowaste and by-products from other sectors. Despite their potential, CBBMs have not received sufficient attention globally, and their adoption is hindered by various barriers. However, it is unclear what the CBBMs' use status is, what adoption barriers exist, how these barriers interact, and what should be done to address them. This study addresses these knowledge gaps through a systematic study using mixed methods to investigate the adoption status and barriers to these materials in developed economies by using a specific case analysis in Flanders. The data analysis results show that hemp-based, cork-based, and straw-based materials are the most used, while the market for CBBMs is very limited in the region. Twenty-three potential adoption barriers were identified and selected from the existing literature, then ranked based on their mean scores. The t-test analysis helps to identify 13 critical barriers, which are grouped into five categories, including cost and risk-related barriers, technical and cultural-related barriers, the government's role-related barriers, information and quality-related barriers, and market-related barriers. Among them, cost and risk-related barriers, including "concern about the high initial cost", "risks and uncertainties involved in adopting new materials", and "perception of the extra cost being incurred", are the three most critical barriers to CBBM adoption in Flanders. Kendall's W test shows good consensus among the two expert groups-with and without hands-on experience in utilising CBBMs-in their rankings of the barriers. Meanwhile, the Mann-Whitney U test indicates no statistically significant differences in the ranks of barriers between the two expert groups. The interview results confirm almost all survey results and provide deeper insights into the status and barriers to adopting these materials. Practical and policy implications are discussed based on these findings to inform policy deliberations on promoting CBBMs. This study may also be a good reference for scholars and industry practitioners to better understand issues impacting decision-making towards the adoption of CBBMs in the construction industry.

Emissions of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds from Architectural Coatings and Polyvinyl Chloride Floorings: Microchamber Method.

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are modern chemical substances that are present in large quantities in indoor environments. Understanding the emission of SVOCs from building materials is essential to identify the main sources of indoor SVOCs and to improve indoor air quality. In this study, a reference method employing custom-designed microchambers (630 mL) was optimized by improving the structure of the gas path and adding polytetrafluoroethylene inner coating to the chamber. After optimization, the recoveries of the microchamber method were significantly improved (75.4-96.7%), and the background in the microchamber was greatly reduced (<0.02 µg/h). By using the microchamber method, 33 SVOCs (including two alkanes, one aromatic, one nitrogen compound, and twenty-nine oxygenated compounds) and 32 SVOCs (including seven alkanes, eight aromatics, and seventeen oxygenated compounds) were detected in the emissions of the architectural coating and the PVC flooring samples, respectively. The area-specific emission rates (SERa) of total SVOCs emitted from architectural coatings and PVC floorings were in the range of 4.09-1309 µg/m2/h) (median: 10.3 µg/m2/h) and 0.508-345 µg/m2/h (median: 11.9 µg/m2/h), respectively. Propanoic acid had the highest SERa (3143 µg/m2/h) in architectural coatings, while methylbenzene (345 µg/m2/h), 2-methylnaphthalene (65.2 µg/m2/h), and naphthalene (60.3 µg/m2/h) were main SVOCs emitted from PVC floorings. Meanwhile, the average second-stage (adsorbed phase) emission mass of the total SVOCs accounts for 66.3% and 47.3% in architectural coatings and PVC floorings, respectively, suggesting that the SVOCs emitted from building materials have a strong tendency to be absorbed on the surface of the room, e.g., the interior wall, the desk or even the skin.

A review of sustainable utilization and prospect of coal gasification slag.

Currently, the storage of coal gasification slag (CGS) is continuously increasing, as the coal gasification technology develops, posing significant environmental hazards. Due to its volcanic ash characteristics and rich residual carbon, CGS has great potential for resource utilization, which has attracted the attentions of many scholars. This paper firstly introduces the compositions and properties of CGS. Then, it reviews the existing utilization methods of CGS, including Preparation of building materials, carbon-ash separation technology, ecological restoration, and cyclic blending. The advantages and disadvantages of various methods are compared. Subsequently, some high-value utilization methods of coal gasification slag are introduced, such as the preparation of high-performance activated carbon and zeolite, of which the feasibility and advantages are evaluated. Finally, some suggestions are put forward for future developing technologies. This paper aims to provide some references and inspiration for the utilization and environmental protection of CGS.

Comprehensive Review of Recent Research Advances on Flame-Retardant Coatings for Building Materials: Chemical Ingredients, Micromorphology, and Processing Techniques.

Developing fire-retardant building materials is vital in reducing fire loss. The design and preparation of novel fire-retardant coatings merely require the adhesion of flame retardants with high fire-retardant characteristics on the surface, which is significantly more economical than adding excessive amounts of flame retardants into bulk building materials. Meanwhile, fire-retardant coating has excellent performance because it can block the self-sustaining mechanisms of heat and mass transfer over combustion interfaces. In recent years, research of fire-retardant coatings for building materials has been subject to rapid development, and a variety of novel environmentally benign fire-retardant coatings have been reported. Nonetheless, as the surface characteristics of various flammable building materials are contrastively different, selecting chemical ingredients and controlling the physical morphology of fire-retardant coatings for specific building materials is rather complicated. Thus, it is urgent to review the ideas and preparation methods for new fire-retardant coatings. This paper summarizes the latest research progress of fire-retardant building materials, focusing on the compositions and performances of fire-retardant coatings, as well as the principles of their bottom-up design and preparation methods on the surface of building materials.

Evaluation of radon hazards at the rural settlements of Uzbekistan.

The "passive" sorption detectors based on the activated charcoal together with scintillation spectrometry were utilized to measure radon flux density from the soil surface as well as volumetric activity of indoor radon at the dwellings of rural areas of Uzbekistan. Additionally, gamma dose rates as well as concentrations of natural radionuclides in soil and building materials samples were determined. Based on the values of natural radionuclides, common radiological indices have been calculated. It was found that varying greatly, 94% radon flux density values did not exceed 80 mBq/(m2·s), while volumetric activities of radon were in the range of 35-564 Bq/m3. The radium equivalent activity for studied soil and building materials samples were below the allowed limit of 370 Bq/kg. Computed gamma dose rates were in the range of 55.50-73.89 ƞGyh-1 below the limit of 80 ƞGyh-1 and annual effective dose rate 0.068-0.091 mSvy-1, the average value of which was higher than the standard limit > 0.47 mSvy-1. The gamma representative index range was 0.89-1.19 with an average of 1.002 which was higher than the standard limit of 1.0. The range of activity utilization index was equal to 0.70-0.86 with an average value 0.77 which was lower than the recommended level ≤ 2.0. And lastly, excess lifetime cancer risk index values were from 1.9 × 10-4 to 2.5 × 10-4 and were lower than the recommended value 2.9 × 10-4 indicating low radiological risk. The results are consistent with the research conducted by other authors earlier, implying suitability of employing the method for the assessment of residential areas.

Advances in the treatment of multi-pollutant flue gas in China's building materials industry.

In most of the world's building material industries, the control of flue gas pollutants mainly focuses on a single pollutant. However, given the large capacity and high contribution of China's building materials industry to global air pollution, the need to develop multi-pollutant emission reduction technology is urgent. Recently, China has focused on reducing the emissions of flue gas pollutants in the building materials industry, established many key research and development projects, and gradually implemented more stringent pollutant emission limits. This project focuses on the most recent advances in flue gas emission control technology in China's building materials industry, including denitration, dust removal, desulfurization, synergistic multi-pollutant emission reduction, and the construction of pilot research and demonstration projects for pollutant removal in several building material industries. On this basis, revised pollutant limits in flue gas emitted in China's building material industry are proposed.

Construction Building Materials as a Potential for Structural Supercapacitor Applications.

Emerging demands to achieve zero carbon emissions and develop renewable energy resources necessitate the development of appropriate energy storage systems. To achieve this, several alternatives to conventional energy storage devices, such as Li-ion batteries or capacitors to more sustainable and scalable energy storage systems, are being explored. Supercapacitors, possess unique characteristics that include high power, long life, and environmental-friendly design. They may be used to bridge the energy-power gap between typical capacitors and fuel cells/batteries. Recently, structural supercapacitors being capable of storing electrochemical energy besides bearing mechanical load have caught the attention of researchers. As such, efforts have been made worldwide to study both the fundamental and applied aspects of structural supercapacitors. Further, the possibility of using construction materials for interdisciplinary applications is being studied because they are relatively cheap and easily available. Thus, construction materials can be considered as potential candidates for the development of structural supercapacitors. Herein an overview on the use of construction materials, such as Portland cement concrete, geopolymer concrete, and bricks, as a component of structural supercapacitors has been presented.

Toward the Threshold of Radiation Hazards of U in Chinese Coal through the CART Algorithm.

The high volume of coal used for combustion usually leads to a large amount of coal combustion residues (CCRs), which contain the naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) decayed from U and Th in coals. The high radioactivity of NORMs can cause potential harm to humans if the CCRs are used as building materials. The activities of CCRs not only depend on the concentrations of radionuclides but also largely depend on the variations of ash yields of coal. On the other hand, ash yields significantly vary in coal from less than 1-50%. This indicates that similar concentrations of radionuclides in coal with different ash yields generally do not result in similar activities in CCRs. Therefore, it is significant to build a threshold of U in coals with different ash yield levels. In this research, based on the data of 945 coal samples from China and the selected optimal model using the classification and regression tree algorithm, the threshold of U for the radiation hazard is determined to be 7.98 mg/kg for coals with ash yields higher than 20%, while the threshold of U for the radiation hazard is 5.28 mg/kg for coals with ash yields lower than 20%.

Improving consistency at testing cementitious materials in the Dynamic Surface Leaching Test on the basis of the European technical specification CEN/TS 16637-2 - Results of a round robin test.

The environmental impact assessment of materials is usually based on laboratory tests, mostly in combination with models describing the longterm fate of the substances of interest in the targeted environmental compartment. Thus, laboratory tests are the fundamental link to achieve appropriate assessment conclusions which makes it essential to generate consistent results. This just as applies to the leaching of cementitious materials. In Europe, the leaching behavior of monolithic building materials is tested in the Dynamic Surface Leaching Test following the specification CEN/TS 16637-2. An interlaboratory comparison on European level regarding this technical specification showed relatively high intra- and interlaboratory variations for the tested materials (monolithic copper slag and cement stabilized coal fly ash). Therefore the German Committee for Structural Concrete (DAfStb) framed a guideline to specify additional testing conditions for cementitious materials. To assess the possible improvement by this guidelines measures, a round robin test with 11 participants from Germany and the Netherlands was conducted. This work aims to provide insight into the factors to be considered in the testing of alkaline materials, including sample preparation, and highlights crucial procedures and their manifestation in the results. All evaluated parameters showed improved results compared to the earlier round robin test. The relative standard deviations for repeatability (RSDr) and reproducibility (RSDR) of the elements calcium, barium, antimony, chromium, molybdenum and vanadium, which are the parameters evaluated in both round robin tests, were RSDr = 4%, 4%, 2%, 5%, 5%, and 5% respectively (4% in average) for this work, in comparison to the European round robin test with an average RSDr of 29% (17%, 17%, 20%, 40%, 36%, and 42%). The RSDR improved from 41% (30%, 36%, 29%, 57%, 40%, and 56%) to 14% (12%, 8%, 6%, 28%, 15%, and 12%). CO2 ingress during testing and the inaccuracy of eluate analytics for concentrations close to the determination limits were identified as the main sources of error.

Characterizing Key Volatile Pollutants Emitted from Adhesives by Chemical Compositions, Odor Contributions and Health Risks.

As one of the major sources of volatile pollutants in indoor air, gaseous emissions from adhesives during interior decoration have attracted increasing concern. Identifying major volatile pollutants and the risk in adhesive gaseous emissions is of great significance, but remains rarely reported. In the present research, we assessed the major volatile pollutants emitted from white emulsion adhesive and silicone adhesive samples (n = 30) from three aspects: chemical composition, odor and health risk contributions. The results showed that a total of 21 volatile pollutants were detected. Significantly, xylene was the most concentrated compound from white emulsion adhesives, accounting for 45.51% of the total concentrations. Butanone oxime was the most concentrated compound in silicone adhesives, accounting for 69.86% of the total concentrations. The trends in odor concentration (evaluated by the odor activity value method) over time were well correlated with the total chemical concentrations. Xylene (58.00%) and butanone oxime (76.75%) showed the highest odor contribution, respectively. Moreover, from an integrated perspective of chemical emissions, odor and health risk contributions, xylene, ethylbenzene, ethyl acetate and benzene were identified as the key volatile pollutants emitted from the white emulsion adhesives, while butanone oxime, butanone, and ethanol were the key volatile pollutants emitted from the silicone adhesives. This study not only identified the key volatile pollutants but also provided characteristics of odor and health risks of gas emitted from adhesives.

The influence of building material structure on radon emanation.

In this work, the radon emanation coefficients for selected building materials that are most often used in Serbia for covering floor surfaces (concrete, concrete screed, granite, glazed ceramic tiles, marble, roofing tile, and terrazzo tile) were determined, and the influence of the material structure on their values. The concentration of226Ra activity in the samples was determined using the gamma spectrometry method. Radon emanation was measured with the RAD7 device. The porosity of the samples was tested using mercury intrusion porosimetry and water absorption methods, and the structural analysis was performed using x-ray diffraction analysis and x-ray fluorescence analysis. The measured values of226Ra activity concentrations were in the range (4.93-298) Bq kg-1, and the estimated values of the radon emanation coefficients were in the range (0.55-6.05) %. The obtained results indicate that the chemical and mineralogical composition, method of production, and the226Ra activity concentration have an influence on the emanation of radon from the material. No significant correlation was found between the radon emanation coefficient and the open porosity of the material, most likely due to the inhomogeneous presence of pores of different dimensions in the materials. It was established that the total value of the emanation coefficient depends on the emanation coefficient for pores ⩽100µm in size.

Application, release, ecotoxicological assessment of biocide in building materials and its soil microbial response.

Biocides are used in building materials to protect the building against microbial colonization and biodeterioration. However, these biocides are introduced by gradual leaching into soils in proximity of the buildings. This review discusses the aspects and characteristics of biocides from building materials in terms of (i) in-situ leaching and simulation thereof in-vitro and in-field tests, (ii) persistence, as well as photolytic and biodegradation, and its influence on toxicological evaluation, and (iii) evaluation of terrestrial toxicity by conventional ecotoxicological tests and novel holistic testing approaches. These aspects are influenced by multiple parameters, out of which water availability, physicochemical properties of microhabitats, combination of biocidal building materials, soil parameters, and composition of the soil microbiome are of utmost relevance. Deeper understanding of this multiparametric system and development of comprehensive characterization methodologies remains crucial, as to facilitate realistic assessment of the environmental impact of biocides used in construction materials and the corresponding degradation byproducts.

Evaluation of Hygrothermal Behaviour in Heritage Buildings through Sensors, CFD Modelling and IRT.

Architectural heritage, building materials and interior space are highly susceptible to temperature and relative humidity. A better knowledge of the hygrothermal dynamics inside buildings allows an adequate conservation of heritage. This work compares three non-destructive techniques (NDT), such as temperature and relative humidity sensors, finite element simulations (CFD) and thermographic pictures (IRT). The work has made it possible to carry out an assessment of the risk of condensation over a year and to identify affected periods and areas of the building. Sensors and IRT pictures provide real data to validate CFD simulations, facilitating a global analysis of the building. The results provided reflect a great concordance between the NDTs used.

Mobilization of asbestos fibers by weathering of a corrugated asbestos cement roof.

Mobilization of asbestos fibers from a 60-year-old corrugated asbestos cement roof was studied in material samples collected from a domestic house in Southern-Norway. Samples included pieces of the roof itself, rainfall simulated run off-water and moss growing on the roof surface. Weathered roof debris below the rain water system was investigated for asbestos fibers leached from the roof, and air samples were collected for asbestos concentrations in ambient air. Micrographs obtained by scanning electron microscopy show that weathering exposed asbestos fibers on the deteriorated roof surface. A high number of fibers found in the run off-water as well as in the weathered roof debris sample illustrates that exposed fibers are prone to mobilization. Investigation of weathering-induced magnesium depletion by scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of asbestos fibers collected from the moss, roof underside and surface revealed that fibers had MgO weight % comparable to reference material. The major element chemistry of the fibers is therefore unaltered. Our findings demonstrate that care must be taken when working on and handling old corrugated asbestos cement roof as asbestos fibers might be released. In order to limit exposure to mobile fibers, moss covering asbestos cement roof should not be removed.

Associations between household renovation and rhinitis among preschool children in China: A cross-sectional study.

During 2010-2012, we surveyed 40,010 3- to 6-year-old children in seven Chinese cities (Beijing, Taiyuan, Urumqi, Shanghai, Nanjing, Changsha, and Chongqing). Their parents reported information on household renovation, including the timing of renovation and the choice of materials for walls and floors in the child's room, and the incidence of their child's rhinitis. Multivariate and two-level (city-child) logistic regression analyses yielding adjusted odds ratios (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals were performed. Sensitivity analyses stratifying data for location and economic level were also performed. About 48.0% of the children had ever had allergic rhinitis, 41.2% had current allergic rhinitis, and 9.0% had had doctor-diagnosed rhinitis. Exposure to household renovation during early lifetime (birth to 1-year-old) had an AOR of 1.43 (1.04-1.9) for allergic rhinitis. The incidence of allergic rhinitis was significantly different in children exposed to different floor and wall covering materials. Floor or wall covering material composed of organic materials significantly increased the risk of childhood allergic rhinitis compared with tile flooring or lime wall covering. Oil paint had an AOR of 1.66 (1.28-2.14) for diagnosed rhinitis compared with lime wall covering. Adding new furniture the year before pregnancy was associated with an AOR of 1.18 (1.10-1.27) and 1.18 (1.11-1.25) for lifetime and current rhinitis. Solid wood or tiles/ceramic as floor materials, and using wallpaper, oil paint, or emulsion panels as wall materials were risk factors for doctor-diagnosed rhinitis. Sensitivity analyses showed that children living in southern or higher economic level China cities were more likely to have allergic rhinitis with household renovation.

The evaluation of BTEX and carbonyls emissions from recycled building materials.

Environmental friendly building materials (BMs) get more attention due to their potential to reduce carbon and air pollutant emissions. However, recycled building materials (RBMs) have no required standard of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions. This study was mainly about the assessment of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), as well as carbonyls emissions from recycled building materials, including gypsum board (GB), calcium silicate board (CSB), fiber cement board (FCB), class I built wall tile (WT), and waterproof gypsum board (WGB). The highest initial and final levels of BTEX were observed on CSB, followed by GB and FCB, and no detectable BTEX were observed on WT and WGB. Benzene was with the highest level among all identified BTEX. Emissions of carbonyls were observed on all materials. The highest initial and final levels of carbonyls were observed on GB, followed by FCB and CSB, while the lowest ones were detected on WT and WGB. The final (96-h) steady-state emissions of BTEX from GB and CSB were 9 and 37 times those from conventional pairs and 27 and 41 times those from low-VOC pairs. Similarly, the final steady-state emissions of carbonyls from GB and CSB were 4.8 and 1.3 times those from conventional pairs and 16 and 2.5 times those from low-VOC pairs. The requirement of evaluation standard for VOC emissions from RBMs is highly recommended to protect consumers. Graphical abstract.