Eating out of home in Portugal: characterisation and effects on dietary intake.

This cross-sectional study aims to describe and compare energy, nutrient intake and food consumption according to eating location and by age groups using data from the National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (IAN-AF 2015/2016). Dietary intake was estimated by two non-consecutive days of food diaries (children)/24-h recalls (other age groups), and four eating location categories were defined according to the proportion of meals consumed at out-of-home locations: Home (at least 80 % of meals at home), Other Homes, School or Work and Restaurants and Other Places. The majority of meals (69·1 %) were consumed at home. Meals were also often taken at school by children and adolescents and in restaurants and similar outlets by adults and elderly. Children and adolescents in the School or Work category ate more fruit, vegetables and pulses and cereals and starchy tubers, whereas adults in this category ate more red and processed meats, sugar-sweetened beverages and sweets. Compared with Home category, Restaurants and Other Places was associated with worse diet adequacies among children (ß = -1·0; 95 % CI = -2·0, -0·04), adolescents: (ß = -2·4; 95 % CI = -3·2, -1·5) and adults (ß = -1·3; 95 % CI = -1·6, -1·0) reflecting higher intakes of energy, fat, trans-fatty acids and SFA, and Na. The elderly consumed more free sugars and fat when eating out of home in general. Overall, findings reflect important variation in nutrient profiles by eating location, with meals taken at school or work contributing to higher consumption of nutrient-dense foods and those taken in restaurants and other similar settings implying higher consumption of energy-dense foods.

Eating out intensity, ultra-processed foods and BMI among Albanian youth.

OBJECTIVE: Ultra-processed foods (UPF) and eating out of home (OH) are changing nutrition, particularly among youth in constrained settings. We aimed to assess the role of eating OH intensity on the associations of UPF and unprocessed or minimally processed foods (UMPF) with BMI among Albanian youth. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Albania, a south-eastern European country. PARTICIPANTS: 281 youth, predominantly females. METHODS: UPF and UMPF were defined based on NOVA, while eating OH intensity based on energy percentage from OH foods. Multivariable models tested associations of UPF and UMPF with BMI stratified by eating OH intensity, controlled for relevant covariates including diet quality, portion size and costs. RESULTS: The respondents age ranged between 18 and 23 years with a female predominance (87·5 %). Mean energy from UPF and UMPF was 846 (sd: 573·0) and 802·9 (422·5) kcals, respectively. Among substantial at home eaters UPF intake was not associated (ß = −0·07, 95 % CI (−0·13, 0·267)) with BMI; however, UMPF negatively associated with BMI (ß = −0·24, 95 % CI (−0·43, −0·06)). Among those defined as substantial OH eaters, UPF (ß = 0·24, 95 % CI (0·08, 0·40)) and UMPF (ß = 0·18, 95 % CI (0·04, 0·33)) were positively associated with BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide evidence for the hypothesis that eating OH plays an important role in the association of UPF and UMPF with BMI in youth. While causality cannot be established due to cross-sectional design, to the best of our knowledge, we provide the first assessment of UPF and UMPF intake in a south-eastern European setting, while highlighting the need for establishing and integrating youth nutrition into national nutritional surveillance systems for key dietary risk factors in Albania.

[Eating out behavior of residents aged 6 and above in China from 2015 to 2017].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the eating out behavior of Chinese residents aged 6 and above from 2015 to 2017. METHODS: Using the data of eating out behavior in the past week from China Nutrition and Health Surveillance(2015-2017), after data cleaning, a total of 150 682 subjects were included in this study, including 80 703 in 2015 and 69 979 in 2016-2017. The percentage of cases were used to describe the eating behaviors of different characteristics of the population, Chi-square test was used to comparative analysis. RESULTS: From 2015 to 2017, proportions of eating out for all the three meals was 46.3% of Chinese residents aged 6 and above in the past week, that of were 69.7%, 84.6%, 33.2%, 19.8% and 9.1% of Chinese residents aged 6 to 11, 12 to 17, 18 to 44, 45 to 59 and 60 and above, respectively. The proportion of urban and rural residents eating out in the past week were 52.8% and 41.2%, respectively, the difference was statistically significant(P<0.05). The proportion of male and female residents eating out in the past week were 49.6% and 43.1%, respectively, the difference was statistically significant(P<0.05). Proportions of eating out for breakfast, lunch and dinner were 31.4%, 37.2% and 21.4% respectively of Chinese residents, that of were 17.3%, 29.1% and 15.1% of Chinese residents eating breakfast, lunch and dinner in work/school canteens. CONCLUSION: Children aged 6 to 17 years old are the key groups for eating out. Among adults aged 18 and above, residents aged 18 to 44 have the highest proportion of eating out. Proportions of eating out for lunch is the highest and the main eating-out place is the canteen for Chinese residents.

[Eating out of home of urban adults in eighteen provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) of China in 2017].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the eating out of home behavior of urban adults in China. METHODS: Samples were chosen from China Food Consumption Survey in 2017. A total of 17 234 participants aged 18 and above were included in the final analysis. The food frequency questionnaire were used to collect eating out of home status in the past week. χ~2 test was used to compare the difference in the rate of eating out of home and dining places among different groups. Non-parametric test was used to compare the differences in dining out times. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of eating out of home was 55.6% in urban adults aged in 2017. The average number of eating out of home was 2.8 times. The proportion of eating in hotels and restaurants was 36.0%. The proportion of eating in the canteen of school, workplace and other places was 19.8%. The rate of eating out of home and dining out times were higher among male, 18-44 years old, people with higher educational level and higher household income. The proportion of students eating in canteen was higher. The proportion of professional technicians and service staff eating in hotels and restaurants were higher. CONCLUSION: Eating out of home is more common among urban adults aged 18 and above in China. Young people aged 18-44 years old eat out more often in the past week. The proportion of people eating in hotels and restaurants is higher.

[Eating out behavior and its impact on obesity among Chinese residents aged 18-59 in 2015].

OBJECTIVE: To study the eating out behavior and its impact on obesity among Chinese residents aged 18-59. METHODS: Multistage stratified random sampling method was used to collect data in 302 monitoring sites of the China National Chronic Non-communicable Disease and Nutrition Surveillance of adults in 31 provinces of China from 2015. A total of 53 887 subjects were included in this study by data cleaning. The population data published by the National Bureau of Statistics in 2010 were used as a standard population of the data result for 2015. Complex sampling weighting method was adopted in data analyses. The number and percentage of cases were used to describe the eating behaviors of different characteristics of the population, Statistical analysis was conducted by using SURVEYFREQ process, and Chi-square test was used to comparative analysis. Multi-factor analysis was conducted to the relationship between eating out frequency and different characteristics and obesity by using SURVEYLOGISTIC model regression. RESULTS: In 2015, proportions of eating out for all the three meals was 36. 1% of Chinese residents aged 18-59 in the past week, that of were 41. 3% and 24. 3% of Chinese residents aged 18-44 and 45-59, respectively. Proportions of Chinese residents was 12. 2% for eating out 1-6 times a week, 15. 8% for eating out 7-13 times a week, and 8. 1% for eating out 14-21 times a week. Results from the multivariate Logistic regression analysis showed that 18-44 years old, male, urban, highly educated, family per capita annual income ≥ 20 000 yuan, unmarried, on the job and school students chose to eat out more commonly. No statistical association was noticed between the frequency of eating out and obesity in women, men who ate out 14-21 times a week showed higher risk of obesity than those who not ate out, with OR=1. 8(95%CI 1. 3-2. 5). CONCLUSION: Proportions of eating out increased for Chinese residents aged 18-59, men who ate out 14-21 times a week showed higher risk of obesity.

Living status and frequency of eating out-of-home foods in relation to nutritional adequacy in 4,017 Japanese female dietetic students aged 18-20 years: A multicenter cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Living status (e.g., living with family or alone) may affect dietary habits. We compared nutritional adequacy according to living status and the frequency of eating out-of-home foods in young Japanese women. METHODS: Female dietetic students (aged 18-20 years; n = 4,017) participated in a cross-sectional multicenter study, which was conducted in 85 dietetic schools in 35 of 47 prefectures in Japan. Habitual dietary intake was assessed with a validated diet history questionnaire. Nutritional adequacy was determined based on the Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese, 2015, for two goals: preventing non-communicable chronic disease (a tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related diseases [DG] that tracks five nutrients) and avoiding insufficient intake of mainly vitamins and minerals (estimated average requirement [EAR] that tracks 14 nutrients). RESULTS: Women living with their family were less likely to meet DG nutrient levels, but more likely to meet EAR nutrient levels compared with those living alone. In contrast, women living alone had more inadequate nutrients with EAR and fewer nutrients with not-meeting DG than those living with families. A higher frequency of eating out-of-home was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of not-meeting DG nutrient levels only in the women living with their family. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of nutritional adequacy varied based on living status. In addition, women living with their family and those with a high frequency of eating out-of-home foods had the highest prevalence of not-meeting DG. Effective ways of improving dietary quality among young Japanese women differ by living status.

Parent and child perspectives on family out-of-home eating: a qualitative analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To (i) explore the factors influencing family out-of-home (OH) eating events and (ii) identify possible opportunities for food businesses to support families in making healthier OH choices. DESIGN: Focus group discussions were conducted with parents (six to eight participants per group) and friendship pair discussions (informal interviews with two children who are friends) were conducted with children (5-12 years) throughout the island of Ireland. Both discussions were audio-recorded and analysed using a thematic content analysis. SETTING: Eight focus groups and sixteen friendship pairs were conducted in Northern Ireland and sixteen focus groups and thirty-two friendship pairs were conducted in the Republic of Ireland. SUBJECTS: Purposive sampling was used to recruit a sample of non-related parents and children that represented equal numbers of gender, age, socio-economic status and demographic backgrounds. RESULTS: The main, overarching theme was that families perceived OH eating to be a treat, while health was not currently a key priority for many parents and children. Children were reported to have most responsibility for their own food choice decisions in this environment, with taste and food neophobia having the greatest influences. Parents believed that if food businesses could meet parent and child priorities in addition to health influences, e.g. change cooking methods, and increase flexibility, then families would be more likely to patronise these establishments. CONCLUSIONS: The entire family OH eating experience needs to be considered when developing public health interventions and this research has highlighted key opportunities that caterers could employ to support healthier family OH food choices.

Correlation between Frequency of Eating Out of Home and Dietary Intake, Sleep, and Physical Activity: A Survey of Young CDC Employees in China.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the correlation between the frequency of eating out of home and dietary intake, sleep, and physical activity among young employees from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in China. METHODS: Using the cluster sampling method, 6099 employees aged 40 years or below from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from 32 provinces in China were interviewed using an online questionnaire survey. The frequency of eating out of home, dietary intake, sleep, and physical activity of all participants was described, and correlation analysis was used to study the relationships between eating out of home frequency and related indicators. RESULTS: A total of 5353 valid questionnaires were collected with the recovery rate of 87.77%. The results show that 85.8% of participants eat out of home one to five times per week, 10.1% eat out of home more than six times, and 4.1% never eat out. Correlation analysis showed that eating out of home is negatively correlated with a daily vegetable and fruit intake. The lower the intake of vegetables and fruits, the more obvious this tendency. Eating out of home is positively correlated with a daily intake of meat as well as a weekly intake of aquatic products. The higher the intake of meat and aquatic products, the more obvious this tendency. There was a negative correlation between eating out of home and sleep duration and physical activity. The lower the duration of sleep and physical activity, the more obvious this tendency. CONCLUSIONS: Based on existing survey data, young employees from the CDC eat out of home regularly, which may affect dietary intake, sleep, and physical activity. Targeted health education programs are urgently needed to assist in the promotion of a healthy lifestyle and reduce the potential risk of chronic disease.

Household Cooking and Eating out: Food Practices and Perceptions of Salt/Sodium Consumption in Costa Rica.

This research aims to study the food practices and perceptions related to excessive consumption of salt/sodium when cooking and eating outside the home in a study population representing the wide intergenerational and sociocultural diversity of Costa Rica. Key communities from around the country, cultural experts, and key informants were selected. Four qualitative research techniques were applied. Data was systematized based on the Social Ecological Model. Women are generally in charge of cooking and family food purchases. Salt is perceived as a basic ingredient, used in small amounts that can be reduced-but not eliminated-when cooking. Changes in food preparations and emotions associated with the consumption of homemade food with salt were identified. The population likes to eat out, where the establishments selected depend mainly on age group and income. Beyond cultural and geographical differences, age aspects are suggested as being the main differentiators, in terms of use of salt, seasonings, and condiments in the preparation of food at home, the recipes prepared, and the selection of establishments in which to eat out. The deeply rooted values and meanings associated with salt in food indicate that the implementation of salt reduction strategies in Costa Rica is challenging.

The Contribution of Foods and Beverages of Low Nutritional Value to the Diets of Swedish Adolescents, by Food Group, Time and Place. A Nationally Representative Study.

Adolescence is a time in life when lifestyle behaviours are acquired. One indicator of poor diet quality is the intake of foods and beverages with a relatively low nutritional value. Using the Australian classification of such foods, termed "discretionary", we classified the intakes of Swedish adolescents who participated in the Riksmaten Adolescent 2016-17 national dietary survey. From selected schools, 3099 adolescents in age groups 11-12, 14-15 and 17-18 years provided two 24-h recalls. Intakes and healthy dietary scores were calculated. Plasma ferritin, folate and 25(OH)D were available for a third. Almost 40% of total energy came from discretionary foods/beverages. Adolescents with higher intakes were more likely to be female, older, from a low socioeconomic position-household and born in Sweden. Most discretionary foods/beverages were consumed on weekend days and during in-between meals, outside of the home and at school. Percent energy from discretionary intake was associated with healthy dietary scores but not nutritional status. A substantial amount of energy was obtained from discretionary foods/beverages, and we found that consumption is pervasive across sociodemographic factors, time and place. Addressing this pattern will require a comprehensive approach to food environments and behaviours to reach all adolescents in an equitable manner.

[Relationship between eating behavior and obesity among Chinese adults].

Objective: To study the relationship between eating behavior and obesity among Chinese adults. Methods: Data were collected from 171 040 people who had been engaged in the 2013 China Chronic and Non-communicable Disease and Risk Factors Surveillance project. Rao-Scott χ(2) test and complex sampling design were used to compare the differences in the rates of eating behavior and obesity. A binary logistic regression model based on complex sampling design was used to investigate the relationship between eating behavior at three meals (breakfast, lunch and dinner) and obesity. Results: The proportion (3.3%) of skipping breakfast appeared the highest. Proportions of eating out for all the three meals were 16.4%, 21.4% and 11.7%, respectively. The prevalence rates of obesity among men who ate lunch at home, ate out or skipped the lunch were 13.2%, 16.1% and 15.9%, respectively. The prevalence rates of obesity among women who ate lunch at home, ate out or skipped lunch were 14.5%, 9.8%, 19.6%, respectively. Results from the multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that eating out for lunch and skipping lunch were both positively correlated with obesity in men (eating out for lunch: OR=1.10, 95%CI: 1.02-1.18; skipping lunch: OR=1.36, 95%CI: 1.02-1.80) while skipping lunch was positively associated with obesity (OR=1.47, 95%CI:1.07-2.02) in women. No statistical association was noticed between eating out for lunch and obesity in women, with OR=0.86 (95%CI: 0.73-1.00). Both eating out for dinner and skipping dinner were positively correlated with obesity in men, with eating out for lunch as OR=1.19 (95%CI: 1.06-1.34) and skipping dinner as OR=1.89 (95%CI: 1.07-3.33). Avoid dinner was positively associated with obesity in women, with OR=1.64 (95%CI: 1.02-2.63). Women who ate out for dinner showed lower risk of obesity than those who ate at home with OR=0.74 (95%CI: 0.59-0.94). Conclusions: Different eating behaviors were seen in Chinese adults, with the highest proportion of eating out for lunch and the lowest proportion for dinner. Both eating out for lunch and dinner appeared risk factors of obesity in men while avoid lunch or dinner were both associated with obesity in both sex.