CRISPR-Based Tools in Immunity.

CRISPR technology has opened a new era of genome interrogation and genome engineering. Discovered in bacteria, where it protects against bacteriophage by cleaving foreign nucleic acid sequences, the CRISPR system has been repurposed as an adaptable tool for genome editing and multiple other applications. CRISPR's ease of use, precision, and versatility have led to its widespread adoption, accelerating biomedical research and discovery in human cells and model organisms. Here we review CRISPR-based tools and discuss how they are being applied to decode the genetic circuits that control immune function in health and disease. Genetic variation in immune cells can affect autoimmune disease risk, infectious disease pathogenesis, and cancer immunotherapies. CRISPR provides unprecedented opportunities for functional mechanistic studies of coding and noncoding genome sequence function in immunity. Finally, we discuss the potential of CRISPR technology to engineer synthetic cellular immunotherapies for a wide range of human diseases.

Natural and Engineered Guide RNA-Directed Transposition with CRISPR-Associated Tn7-Like Transposons.

CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated nuclease) defense systems have been naturally coopted for guide RNA-directed transposition on multiple occasions. In all cases, cooption occurred with diverse elements related to the bacterial transposon Tn7. Tn7 tightly controls transposition; the transposase is activated only when special targets are recognized by dedicated target-site selection proteins. Tn7 and the Tn7-like elements that coopted CRISPR-Cas systems evolved complementary targeting pathways: one that recognizes a highly conserved site in the chromosome and a second pathway that targets mobile plasmids capable of cell-to-cell transfer. Tn7 and Tn7-like elements deliver a single integration into the site they recognize and also control the orientation of the integration event, providing future potential for use as programmable gene-integration tools. Early work has shown that guide RNA-directed transposition systems can be adapted to diverse hosts, even within microbial communities, suggesting great potential for engineering these systems as powerful gene-editing tools.

Reading and Writing the Human Glycocode.

The complex carbohydrate structures decorating human proteins and lipids, also called glycans, are abundantly present at cell surfaces and in the secretome. Glycosylation is vital for biological processes including cell-cell recognition, immune responses, and signaling pathways. Therefore, the structural and functional characterization of the human glycome is gaining more and more interest in basic biochemistry research and in the context of developing new therapies, diagnostic tools, and biotechnology applications. For glycomics to reach its full potential in these fields, it is critical to appreciate the specific factors defining the function of the human glycome. Here, we review the glycosyltransferases (the writers) that form the glycome and the glycan-binding proteins (the readers) with an essential role in decoding glycan functions. While abundantly present throughout different cells and tissues, the function of specific glycosylation features is highly dependent on their context. In this review, we highlight the relevance of studying the glycome in the context of specific carrier proteins, cell types, and subcellular locations. With this, we hope to contribute to a richer understanding of the glycome and a more systematic approach to identifying the roles of glycosylation in human physiology.

All-RNA-mediated targeted gene integration in mammalian cells with rationally engineered R2 retrotransposons.

All-RNA-mediated targeted gene integration methods, rendering reduced immunogenicity, effective deliverability with non-viral vehicles, and a low risk of random mutagenesis, are urgently needed for next-generation gene addition technologies. Naturally occurring R2 retrotransposons hold promise in this context due to their site-specific integration profile. Here, we systematically analyzed the biodiversity of R2 elements and screened several R2 orthologs capable of full-length gene insertion in mammalian cells. Robust R2 system gene integration efficiency was attained using combined donor RNA and protein engineering. Importantly, the all-RNA-delivered engineered R2 system showed effective integration activity, with efficiency over 60% in mouse embryos. Unbiased high-throughput sequencing demonstrated that the engineered R2 system exhibited high on-target integration specificity (99%). In conclusion, our study provides engineered R2 tools for applications based on hit-and-run targeted DNA integration and insights for further optimization of retrotransposon systems.

Rapid DNA unwinding accelerates genome editing by engineered CRISPR-Cas9.

Thermostable clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas9) enzymes could improve genome-editing efficiency and delivery due to extended protein lifetimes. However, initial experimentation demonstrated Geobacillus stearothermophilus Cas9 (GeoCas9) to be virtually inactive when used in cultured human cells. Laboratory-evolved variants of GeoCas9 overcome this natural limitation by acquiring mutations in the wedge (WED) domain that produce >100-fold-higher genome-editing levels. Cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of the wild-type and improved GeoCas9 (iGeoCas9) enzymes reveal extended contacts between the WED domain of iGeoCas9 and DNA substrates. Biochemical analysis shows that iGeoCas9 accelerates DNA unwinding to capture substrates under the magnesium-restricted conditions typical of mammalian but not bacterial cells. These findings enabled rational engineering of other Cas9 orthologs to enhance genome-editing levels, pointing to a general strategy for editing enzyme improvement. Together, these results uncover a new role for the Cas9 WED domain in DNA unwinding and demonstrate how accelerated target unwinding dramatically improves Cas9-induced genome-editing activity.

Chromatin context-dependent regulation and epigenetic manipulation of prime editing.

We set out to exhaustively characterize the impact of the cis-chromatin environment on prime editing, a precise genome engineering tool. Using a highly sensitive method for mapping the genomic locations of randomly integrated reporters, we discover massive position effects, exemplified by editing efficiencies ranging from ∼0% to 94% for an identical target site and edit. Position effects on prime editing efficiency are well predicted by chromatin marks, e.g., positively by H3K79me2 and negatively by H3K9me3. Next, we developed a multiplex perturbational framework to assess the interaction of trans-acting factors with the cis-chromatin environment on editing outcomes. Applying this framework to DNA repair factors, we identify HLTF as a context-dependent repressor of prime editing. Finally, several lines of evidence suggest that active transcriptional elongation enhances prime editing. Consistent with this, we show we can robustly decrease or increase the efficiency of prime editing by preceding it with CRISPR-mediated silencing or activation, respectively.

Preclinical proof of principle for orally delivered Th17 antagonist miniproteins.

Interleukin (IL)-23 and IL-17 are well-validated therapeutic targets in autoinflammatory diseases. Antibodies targeting IL-23 and IL-17 have shown clinical efficacy but are limited by high costs, safety risks, lack of sustained efficacy, and poor patient convenience as they require parenteral administration. Here, we present designed miniproteins inhibiting IL-23R and IL-17 with antibody-like, low picomolar affinities at a fraction of the molecular size. The minibinders potently block cell signaling in vitro and are extremely stable, enabling oral administration and low-cost manufacturing. The orally administered IL-23R minibinder shows efficacy better than a clinical anti-IL-23 antibody in mouse colitis and has a favorable pharmacokinetics (PK) and biodistribution profile in rats. This work demonstrates that orally administered de novo-designed minibinders can reach a therapeutic target past the gut epithelial barrier. With high potency, gut stability, and straightforward manufacturability, de novo-designed minibinders are a promising modality for oral biologics.

A synthetic differentiation circuit in Escherichia coli for suppressing mutant takeover.

Differentiation is crucial for multicellularity. However, it is inherently susceptible to mutant cells that fail to differentiate. These mutants outcompete normal cells by excessive self-renewal. It remains unclear what mechanisms can resist such mutant expansion. Here, we demonstrate a solution by engineering a synthetic differentiation circuit in Escherichia coli that selects against these mutants via a biphasic fitness strategy. The circuit provides tunable production of synthetic analogs of stem, progenitor, and differentiated cells. It resists mutations by coupling differentiation to the production of an essential enzyme, thereby disadvantaging non-differentiating mutants. The circuit selected for and maintained a positive differentiation rate in long-term evolution. Surprisingly, this rate remained constant across vast changes in growth conditions. We found that transit-amplifying cells (fast-growing progenitors) underlie this environmental robustness. Our results provide insight into the stability of differentiation and demonstrate a powerful method for engineering evolutionarily stable multicellular consortia.

A versatile CRISPR-Cas13d platform for multiplexed transcriptomic regulation and metabolic engineering in primary human T cells.

CRISPR technologies have begun to revolutionize T cell therapies; however, conventional CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing tools are limited in their safety, efficacy, and scope. To address these challenges, we developed multiplexed effector guide arrays (MEGA), a platform for programmable and scalable regulation of the T cell transcriptome using the RNA-guided, RNA-targeting activity of CRISPR-Cas13d. MEGA enables quantitative, reversible, and massively multiplexed gene knockdown in primary human T cells without targeting or cutting genomic DNA. Applying MEGA to a model of CAR T cell exhaustion, we robustly suppressed inhibitory receptor upregulation and uncovered paired regulators of T cell function through combinatorial CRISPR screening. We additionally implemented druggable regulation of MEGA to control CAR activation in a receptor-independent manner. Lastly, MEGA enabled multiplexed disruption of immunoregulatory metabolic pathways to enhance CAR T cell fitness and anti-tumor activity in vitro and in vivo. MEGA offers a versatile synthetic toolkit for applications in cancer immunotherapy and beyond.

Toward developing human organs via embryo models and chimeras.

Developing functional organs from stem cells remains a challenging goal in regenerative medicine. Existing methodologies, such as tissue engineering, bioprinting, and organoids, only offer partial solutions. This perspective focuses on two promising approaches emerging for engineering human organs from stem cells: stem cell-based embryo models and interspecies organogenesis. Both approaches exploit the premise of guiding stem cells to mimic natural development. We begin by summarizing what is known about early human development as a blueprint for recapitulating organogenesis in both embryo models and interspecies chimeras. The latest advances in both fields are discussed before highlighting the technological and knowledge gaps to be addressed before the goal of developing human organs could be achieved using the two approaches. We conclude by discussing challenges facing embryo modeling and interspecies organogenesis and outlining future prospects for advancing both fields toward the generation of human tissues and organs for basic research and translational applications.

Heterologous survey of 130 DNA transposons in human cells highlights their functional divergence and expands the genome engineering toolbox.

Experimental studies on DNA transposable elements (TEs) have been limited in scale, leading to a lack of understanding of the factors influencing transposition activity, evolutionary dynamics, and application potential as genome engineering tools. We predicted 130 active DNA TEs from 102 metazoan genomes and evaluated their activity in human cells. We identified 40 active (integration-competent) TEs, surpassing the cumulative number (20) of TEs found previously. With this unified comparative data, we found that the Tc1/mariner superfamily exhibits elevated activity, potentially explaining their pervasive horizontal transfers. Further functional characterization of TEs revealed additional divergence in features such as insertion bias. Remarkably, in CAR-T therapy for hematological and solid tumors, Mariner2_AG (MAG), the most active DNA TE identified, largely outperformed two widely used vectors, the lentiviral vector and the TE-based vector SB100X. Overall, this study highlights the varied transposition features and evolutionary dynamics of DNA TEs and increases the TE toolbox diversity.

Rubisco Function, Evolution, and Engineering.

Carbon fixation is the process by which CO2 is converted from a gas into biomass. The Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle (CBB) is the dominant carbon-consuming pathway on Earth, driving >99.5% of the ∼120 billion tons of carbon that are converted to sugar by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The carboxylase enzyme in the CBB, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco), fixes one CO2 molecule per turn of the cycle into bioavailable sugars. Despite being critical to the assimilation of carbon, rubisco's kinetic rate is not very fast, limiting flux through the pathway. This bottleneck presents a paradox: Why has rubisco not evolved to be a better catalyst? Many hypothesize that the catalytic mechanism of rubisco is subject to one or more trade-offs and that rubisco variants have been optimized for their native physiological environment. Here, we review the evolution and biochemistry of rubisco through the lens of structure and mechanism in order to understand what trade-offs limit its improvement. We also review the many attempts to improve rubisco itself and thereby promote plant growth.

The Design and Application of DNA-Editing Enzymes as Base Editors.

DNA-editing enzymes perform chemical reactions on DNA nucleobases. These reactions can change the genetic identity of the modified base or modulate gene expression. Interest in DNA-editing enzymes has burgeoned in recent years due to the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-associated (CRISPR-Cas) systems, which can be used to direct their DNA-editing activity to specific genomic loci of interest. In this review, we showcase DNA-editing enzymes that have been repurposed or redesigned and developed into programmable base editors. These include deaminases, glycosylases, methyltransferases, and demethylases. We highlight the astounding degree to which these enzymes have been redesigned, evolved, and refined and present these collective engineering efforts as a paragon for future efforts to repurpose and engineer other families of enzymes. Collectively, base editors derived from these DNA-editing enzymes facilitate programmable point mutation introduction and gene expression modulation by targeted chemical modification of nucleobases.

Reconstruction of a fatty acid synthesis cycle from acyl carrier protein and cofactor structural snapshots.

Fatty acids (FAs) play a central metabolic role in living cells as constituents of membranes, cellular energy reserves, and second messenger precursors. A 2.6 MDa FA synthase (FAS), where the enzymatic reactions and structures are known, is responsible for FA biosynthesis in yeast. Essential in the yeast FAS catalytic cycle is the acyl carrier protein (ACP) that actively shuttles substrates, biosynthetic intermediates, and products from one active site to another. We resolve the S. cerevisiae FAS structure at 1.9 Å, elucidating cofactors and water networks involved in their recognition. Structural snapshots of ACP domains bound to various enzymatic domains allow the reconstruction of a full yeast FA biosynthesis cycle. The structural information suggests that each FAS functional unit could accommodate exogenous proteins to incorporate various enzymatic activities, and we show proof-of-concept experiments where ectopic proteins are used to modulate FAS product profiles.

Structure of the thrombopoietin-MPL receptor complex is a blueprint for biasing hematopoiesis.

Thrombopoietin (THPO or TPO) is an essential cytokine for hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) maintenance and megakaryocyte differentiation. Here, we report the 3.4 Å resolution cryoelectron microscopy structure of the extracellular TPO-TPO receptor (TpoR or MPL) signaling complex, revealing the basis for homodimeric MPL activation and providing a structural rationalization for genetic loss-of-function thrombocytopenia mutations. The structure guided the engineering of TPO variants (TPOmod) with a spectrum of signaling activities, from neutral antagonists to partial- and super-agonists. Partial agonist TPOmod decoupled JAK/STAT from ERK/AKT/CREB activation, driving a bias for megakaryopoiesis and platelet production without causing significant HSC expansion in mice and showing superior maintenance of human HSCs in vitro. These data demonstrate the functional uncoupling of the two primary roles of TPO, highlighting the potential utility of TPOmod in hematology research and clinical HSC transplantation.

Phage-assisted evolution and protein engineering yield compact, efficient prime editors.

Prime editing enables a wide variety of precise genome edits in living cells. Here we use protein evolution and engineering to generate prime editors with reduced size and improved efficiency. Using phage-assisted evolution, we improved editing efficiencies of compact reverse transcriptases by up to 22-fold and generated prime editors that are 516-810 base pairs smaller than the current-generation editor PEmax. We discovered that different reverse transcriptases specialize in different types of edits and used this insight to generate reverse transcriptases that outperform PEmax and PEmaxΔRNaseH, the truncated editor used in dual-AAV delivery systems. Finally, we generated Cas9 domains that improve prime editing. These resulting editors (PE6a-g) enhance therapeutically relevant editing in patient-derived fibroblasts and primary human T-cells. PE6 variants also enable longer insertions to be installed in vivo following dual-AAV delivery, achieving 40% loxP insertion in the cortex of the murine brain, a 24-fold improvement compared to previous state-of-the-art prime editors.

Structural basis for ion selectivity in potassium-selective channelrhodopsins.

KCR channelrhodopsins (K+-selective light-gated ion channels) have received attention as potential inhibitory optogenetic tools but more broadly pose a fundamental mystery regarding how their K+ selectivity is achieved. Here, we present 2.5-2.7 Å cryo-electron microscopy structures of HcKCR1 and HcKCR2 and of a structure-guided mutant with enhanced K+ selectivity. Structural, electrophysiological, computational, spectroscopic, and biochemical analyses reveal a distinctive mechanism for K+ selectivity; rather than forming the symmetrical filter of canonical K+ channels achieving both selectivity and dehydration, instead, three extracellular-vestibule residues within each monomer form a flexible asymmetric selectivity gate, while a distinct dehydration pathway extends intracellularly. Structural comparisons reveal a retinal-binding pocket that induces retinal rotation (accounting for HcKCR1/HcKCR2 spectral differences), and design of corresponding KCR variants with increased K+ selectivity (KALI-1/KALI-2) provides key advantages for optogenetic inhibition in vitro and in vivo. Thus, discovery of a mechanism for ion-channel K+ selectivity also provides a framework for next-generation optogenetics.

Massively parallel base editing to map variant effects in human hematopoiesis.

Systematic evaluation of the impact of genetic variants is critical for the study and treatment of human physiology and disease. While specific mutations can be introduced by genome engineering, we still lack scalable approaches that are applicable to the important setting of primary cells, such as blood and immune cells. Here, we describe the development of massively parallel base-editing screens in human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Such approaches enable functional screens for variant effects across any hematopoietic differentiation state. Moreover, they allow for rich phenotyping through single-cell RNA sequencing readouts and separately for characterization of editing outcomes through pooled single-cell genotyping. We efficiently design improved leukemia immunotherapy approaches, comprehensively identify non-coding variants modulating fetal hemoglobin expression, define mechanisms regulating hematopoietic differentiation, and probe the pathogenicity of uncharacterized disease-associated variants. These strategies will advance effective and high-throughput variant-to-function mapping in human hematopoiesis to identify the causes of diverse diseases.

Super-enhancers include classical enhancers and facilitators to fully activate gene expression.

Super-enhancers are compound regulatory elements that control expression of key cell identity genes. They recruit high levels of tissue-specific transcription factors and co-activators such as the Mediator complex and contact target gene promoters with high frequency. Most super-enhancers contain multiple constituent regulatory elements, but it is unclear whether these elements have distinct roles in activating target gene expression. Here, by rebuilding the endogenous multipartite α-globin super-enhancer, we show that it contains bioinformatically equivalent but functionally distinct element types: classical enhancers and facilitator elements. Facilitators have no intrinsic enhancer activity, yet in their absence, classical enhancers are unable to fully upregulate their target genes. Without facilitators, classical enhancers exhibit reduced Mediator recruitment, enhancer RNA transcription, and enhancer-promoter interactions. Facilitators are interchangeable but display functional hierarchy based on their position within a multipartite enhancer. Facilitators thus play an important role in potentiating the activity of classical enhancers and ensuring robust activation of target genes.

A transcription factor atlas of directed differentiation.

Transcription factors (TFs) regulate gene programs, thereby controlling diverse cellular processes and cell states. To comprehensively understand TFs and the programs they control, we created a barcoded library of all annotated human TF splice isoforms (>3,500) and applied it to build a TF Atlas charting expression profiles of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) overexpressing each TF at single-cell resolution. We mapped TF-induced expression profiles to reference cell types and validated candidate TFs for generation of diverse cell types, spanning all three germ layers and trophoblasts. Targeted screens with subsets of the library allowed us to create a tailored cellular disease model and integrate mRNA expression and chromatin accessibility data to identify downstream regulators. Finally, we characterized the effects of combinatorial TF overexpression by developing and validating a strategy for predicting combinations of TFs that produce target expression profiles matching reference cell types to accelerate cellular engineering efforts.