Conformational analysis of a new peptide derived from feline immunodeficiency virus gp36 in SDS micelles: An NMR-MD based investigation.

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) shares structural similarities with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): the surface glycoprotein gp36 corresponds to the HIV gp41, which drives virus-host cell interactions and is targeted by the peptide entry inhibitor enfuvirtide. Following a similar drug design strategy for the development of an anti-FIV therapy, the present study investigates 627-646gp36 NHR, a peptide sequence derived from a region of gp36 that was previously found to interfere with the antiviral activity of the peptide C8, which instead derives from the gp36 MPER. CD, NMR, and MD simulations were employed to probe the conformational characteristics of 627-646gp36 NHR in the membrane-mimicking environment of SDS micelles. Our data show that 627-646gp36 NHR is characterized by three dynamic helix structures. MD simulations involving 627-646gp36 NHR, C8, and a larger protein, including the CHR and MPER regions, suggest that the interaction of C8 with the MPER region, the origin of the antiviral activity of C8, is disfavored in the presence of 627-646gp36 NHR in the simulation. This evidence can be useful for interpreting the molecular mechanism that leads to interference with the activity of C8, providing information on the folding/unfolding mechanism of the viral glycoprotein to design new strategies to inhibit viral entry.

Comprehensive Investigation on the Interplay between Feline APOBEC3Z3 Proteins and Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Vif Proteins.

As the hosts of lentiviruses, almost 40 species of felids (family Felidae) are distributed around the world, and more than 20 feline species test positive for feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a lineage of lentiviruses. These observations suggest that FIVs globally infected a variety of feline species through multiple cross-species transmission events during a million-year history. Cellular restriction factors potentially inhibit lentiviral replication and limit cross-species lentiviral transmission, and cellular APOBEC3 deaminases are known as a potent restriction factor. In contrast, lentiviruses have evolutionary-acquired viral infectivity factor (Vif) to neutralize the APOBEC3-mediated antiviral effect. Because the APOBEC3-Vif interaction is strictly specific for viruses and their hosts, a comprehensive investigation focusing on Vif-APOBEC3 interplay can provide clues that will elucidate the roles of this virus-host interplay on cross-species transmission of lentiviruses. Here, we performed a comprehensive investigation with 144 patterns of a round robin test using 18 feline APOBEC3Z3 genes, an antiviral APOBEC3 gene in felid, and 8 FIV Vifs and derived a matrix showing the interplay between feline APOBEC3Z3 and FIV Vif. We particularly focused on the interplay between the APOBEC3Z3 of three felids (domestic cat, ocelot, and Asian golden cat) and an FIV Vif (strain Petaluma), and revealed that residues 65 and 66 of the APOBEC3Z3 protein of multiple felids are responsible for the counteraction triggered by FIV Petaluma Vif. Altogether, our findings can be a clue to elucidate not only the scenarios of the cross-species transmissions of FIVs in felids but also the evolutionary interaction between mammals and lentiviruses. IMPORTANCE Most of the emergences of new virus infections originate from the cross-species transmission of viruses. The fact that some virus infections are strictly specific for the host species indicates that certain "species barriers" in the hosts restrict cross-species jump of viruses, while viruses have evolutionary acquired their own "arms" to overcome/antagonize/neutralize these hurdles. Therefore, understanding of the molecular mechanism leading to successful cross-species viral transmission is crucial for considering the menus of the emergence of novel pathogenic viruses. In the field of retrovirology, APOBEC3-Vif interaction is a well-studied example of the battles between hosts and viruses. Here, we determined the sequences of 11 novel feline APOBEC3Z3 genes and demonstrated that all 18 different feline APOBEC3Z3 proteins tested exhibit anti-feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) activity. Our comprehensive investigation focusing on the interplay between feline APOBEC3 and FIV Vif can be a clue to elucidate the scenarios of the cross-species transmissions of FIVs in felids.

Synthesis and evaluation of 1,2,3-dithiazole inhibitors of the nucleocapsid protein of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) as a model for HIV infection.

We disclose a series of potent anti-viral 1,2,3-dithiazoles, accessed through a succinct synthetic approach from 4,5-dichloro-1,2,3-dithiazolium chloride (Appel's salt). A series of small libraries of compounds were screened against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infected cells as a model for HIV. This approach highlighted new structure activity relationship understanding and led to the development of sub-micro molar anti-viral compounds with reduced toxicity. In addition, insight into the mechanistic progress of this system is provided via advanced QM-MM modelling. The 1,2,3-dithiazole represents a versatile scaffold with potential for further development to treat both FIV and HIV.

Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary dynamics of H3N2 canine and feline influenza virus strains from 2006 to 2019.

H3N2 feline influenza virus (FIV) and canine influenza virus (CIV) are very common in cats and dogs. Due to the ability of the influenza virus to spread across hosts and frequent contact between pets and people, there exist huge public health problems. In this study, we collected H3N2 CIV and FIV genomes from 2006 to 2019 from NCBI and analyzed the evolutionary dynamics and molecular variation using a series of phylogenetic analysis methods. Results indicated that H3N2 FIVs were closely related to CIVs with high posterior probability and CIVs and FIVs have certain regional characteristics. However, compared with previous studies, the significance of geographical structure correlation decreased. Furthermore, we also found that the intrasubtypic reassortment between FIVs and CIVs were common during epidemics. The integrated analysis was also performed for different selection pressure acting on HA (566 codons), NA (469 codons), M1 (252 codons), and M2 (97 codons) proteins. One HA, two NA, three M1, and two M2 sites were found under positive selection. We subsequently performed the evolutionary dynamics of H3N2 CIV. The results indicated that the time of the most recent common ancestor of CIV H3N2 may have occurred earlier than indicated in a previous study. The Bayesian skyline plot analysis in this study showed the period of divergence of major H3N2 CIVs segments occurred between 2008 and 2010. Notably, according to our research, the PB1 has experienced two divergence periods (2006-2008 and 2009-2011).

Novel approach of dermatophytosis eradication in shelters: effect of Pythium oligandrum on Microsporum canis in FIV or FeLV positive cats.

BACKGROUND: Shelters and similar facilities with a high concentration and fluctuation of animals often have problems with various infections, which are usually difficult to solve in such environments and are very expensive to treat. This study investigated the eradication of Microsporum canis, the widespread cause of zoonotic dermatophytosis in shelters, even in immunosuppressed feline leukaemia virus or feline immunodeficiency virus positive cats. RESULTS: Our study showed the increased effectiveness of an alternative topical therapy for affected animals using the mycoparasitic fungus Pythium oligandrum, which is gentler and cheaper than the standard systemic treatment with itraconazole, and which can also be easily used as a preventative treatment. A decrease in the number of M. canis colonies was observed in cats treated with a preparation containing P. oligandrum 2 weeks after the start of therapy (2 cats with P-1 score, 2 cats with P-2 score, 5 cats with P-3 score) compared with the beginning of the study (9 cats with P-3 score = massive infection). The alternative topical therapy with a preparation containing P. oligandrum was significantly more effective compared with the commonly used systemic treatment using itraconazole 5 mg/kg in a 6-week pulse. After 16 weeks of application of the alternative topical therapy, the clinical signs of dermatophytosis were eliminated throughout the whole shelter. CONCLUSION: The complete elimination of the clinical signs of dermatophytosis in all cats indicates that this therapy will be useful for the management and prevention of zoonotic dermatophytosis in animal shelters.

First report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in Germany: organism description and molecular confirmation in a domestic cat.

Cytauxzoonosis is described as an emerging tick-borne disease of domestic and wild felids caused by protozoans of the genus Cytauxzoon. While in the Americas the condition is described as a fatal disease, in Europe, reports on the clinical expression of the infection are scarce. This study describes the first case of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in Germany, in a domestic cat. A 6-year-old male domestic cat living in Saarlouis (Saarland) was presented with anorexia, lethargy and weight loss. The cat had an outdoor lifestyle and had not travelled abroad. Serum clinical chemistry analysis revealed azotaemia with markedly increased symmetric dimethylarginine, hypercreatinemia, hyperphosphatemia and hypoalbuminemia. Moreover, a mild non-regenerative anaemia was present. Approximately 1 year prior to these findings, the domestic cat was diagnosed with a feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection. These results pointed toward a decreased glomerular filtration rate, presumably as a result of kidney dysfunction. Round to oval signet ring-shaped intraerythrocytic organisms, morphologically suggestive for a piroplasm, were revealed during blood smear evaluation with a degree of parasitaemia of 33.0%. PCR analyses and sequencing of a region of the 18S rRNA gene confirmed the presence of a Cytauxzoon sp. infection, with 99-100% nucleotide sequence identity with previously published Cytauxzoon sp. isolates. As this is the first molecularly confirmed Cytauxzoon sp. infection in a domestic cat in Germany, these findings suggest that cytauxzoonosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of anaemia in outdoor domestic cats, particularly in areas where wild felid populations are present.

NMR Structure of the FIV gp36 C-Terminal Heptad Repeat and Membrane-Proximal External Region.

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a lentivirus causing an immunodeficiency syndrome in cats, represents a relevant model of pre-screening therapies for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The envelope glycoproteins gp36 in FIV and gp41 in HIV mediate the fusion of the virus with the host cell membrane. They have a common structural framework in the C-terminal region that includes a Trp-rich membrane-proximal external region (MPER) and a C-terminal heptad repeat (CHR). MPER is essential for the correct positioning of gp36 on the lipid membrane, whereas CHR is essential for the stabilization of the low-energy six-helical bundle (6HB) that is necessary for the fusion of the virus envelope with the cell membrane. Conformational data for gp36 are missing, and several aspects of the MPER structure of different lentiviruses are still debated. In the present work, we report the structural investigation of a gp36 construct that includes the MPER and part of the CHR domain (737-786gp36 CHR-MPER). Using 2D and 3D homo and heteronuclear NMR spectra on 15N and 13C double-labelled samples, we solved the NMR structure in micelles composed of dodecyl phosphocholine (DPC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) 90/10 M: M. The structure of 737-786gp36 CHR-MPER is characterized by a helix-turn-helix motif, with a regular α-helix and a moderately flexible 310 helix, characterizing the CHR and the MPER domains, respectively. The two helices are linked by a flexible loop regulating their orientation at a ~43° angle. We investigated the positioning of 737-786gp36 CHR-MPER on the lipid membrane using spin label-enhanced NMR and ESR spectroscopies. On a different scale, using confocal microscopy imaging, we studied the effect of 737-786gp36 CHR-MPER on 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine/1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DOPC/DOPG) multilamellar vesicles (MLVs). This effect results in membrane budding and tubulation that is reminiscent of a membrane-plasticizing role that is typical of MPER domains during the event in which the virus envelope merges with the host cell membrane.

Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I (FLA-E*01801) Molecular Structure in Domestic Cats Demonstrates Species-Specific Characteristics in Presenting Viral Antigen Peptides.

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in domestic cats is the smallest usable natural model for lentiviral infection studies. FLA-E*01801 was applied to FIV AIDS vaccine research. We determined the crystal structure of FLA-E*01801 complexed with a peptide derived from FIV (gag positions 40 to 48; RMANVSTGR [RMA9]). The A pocket of the FLA-E*01801 complex plays a valuable restrictive role in peptide binding. Mutation experiments and circular-dichroism (CD) spectroscopy revealed that peptides with Asp at the first position (P1) could not bind to FLA-E*01801. The crystal structure and in vitro refolding of the mutant FLA-E*01801 complex demonstrated that Glu63 and Trp167 in the A pocket play important roles in restricting P1D. The B pocket of the FLA-E*01801 complex accommodates M/T/A/V/I/L/S residues, whereas the negatively charged F pocket prefers R/K residues. Based on the peptide binding motif, 125 FLA-E*01801-restricted FIV nonapeptides (San Diego isolate) were identified. Our results provide the structural basis for peptide presentation by the FLA-E*01801 molecule, especially A pocket restriction on peptide binding, and identify the potential cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitope peptides of FIV presented by FLA-E*01801. These results will benefit both the reasonable design of FLA-E*01801-restricted CTL epitopes and the further development of the AIDS vaccine.IMPORTANCE Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a viral pathogen in cats, and this infection is the smallest usable natural model for lentivirus infection studies. To examine how FLA I presents FIV epitope peptides, we crystallized and solved the first classic feline major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecular structure. Surprisingly, pocket A restricts peptide binding. Trp167 blocks the left side of pocket A, causing P1D to conflict with Glu63 We also identified the FLA-E*01801 binding motif X (except D)-(M/T/A/V/I/L/S)-X-X-X-X-X-X-(R/K) based on structural and biochemical experiments. We identified 125 FLA-E*01801-restricted nonapeptides from FIV. These results are valuable for developing peptide-based FIV and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccines and for studying how MHC-I molecules present peptides.

Formation of RNA Granule-Derived Capsid Assembly Intermediates Appears To Be Conserved between Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and the Nonprimate Lentivirus Feline Immunodeficiency Virus.

During immature capsid assembly in cells, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Gag co-opts a host RNA granule, forming a pathway of intracellular assembly intermediates containing host components, including two cellular facilitators of assembly, ABCE1 and DDX6. A similar assembly pathway has been observed for other primate lentiviruses. Here we asked whether feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a nonprimate lentivirus, also forms RNA granule-derived capsid assembly intermediates. First, we showed that the released FIV immature capsid and a large FIV Gag-containing intracellular complex are unstable during analysis, unlike for HIV-1. We identified harvest conditions, including in situ cross-linking, that overcame this problem, revealing a series of FIV Gag-containing complexes corresponding in size to HIV-1 assembly intermediates. Previously, we showed that assembly-defective HIV-1 Gag mutants are arrested at specific assembly intermediates; here we identified four assembly-defective FIV Gag mutants, including three not previously studied, and demonstrated that they appear to be arrested at the same intermediate as the cognate HIV-1 mutants. Further evidence that these FIV Gag-containing complexes correspond to assembly intermediates came from coimmunoprecipitations demonstrating that endogenous ABCE1 and the RNA granule protein DDX6 are associated with FIV Gag, as shown previously for HIV-1 Gag, but are not associated with a ribosomal protein, at steady state. Additionally, we showed that FIV Gag associates with another RNA granule protein, DCP2. Finally, we validated the FIV Gag-ABCE1 and FIV Gag-DCP2 interactions with proximity ligation assays demonstrating colocalization in situ Together, these data support a model in which primate and nonprimate lentiviruses form intracellular capsid assembly intermediates derived from nontranslating host RNA granules.IMPORTANCE Like HIV-1 Gag, FIV Gag assembles into immature capsids; however, it is not known whether FIV Gag progresses through a pathway of immature capsid assembly intermediates derived from host RNA granules, as shown for HIV-1 Gag. Here we showed that FIV Gag forms complexes that resemble HIV-1 capsid assembly intermediates in size and in their association with ABCE1 and DDX6, two host facilitators of HIV-1 immature capsid assembly that are found in HIV-1 assembly intermediates. Our studies also showed that known and novel assembly-defective FIV Gag mutants fail to progress past putative intermediates in a pattern resembling that observed for HIV-1 Gag mutants. Finally, we used imaging to demonstrate colocalization of FIV Gag with ABCE1 and with the RNA granule protein DCP2. Thus, we conclude that formation of assembly intermediates derived from host RNA granules is likely conserved between primate and nonprimate lentiviruses and could provide targets for future antiviral strategies.

Synthesis and comparison of substituted 1,2,3-dithiazole and 1,2,3-thiaselenazole as inhibitors of the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) nucleocapsid protein as a model for HIV infection.

We report the first biological evaluation the 1,2,3-thiaselenazole class of compound and utilising a concise synthetic approach of sulfur extrusion, selenium insertion of the 1,2,3-dithiazoles. We created a small diverse library of compounds to contrast the two ring systems. This approach has highlighted new structure activity relationship insights and lead to the development of sub-micro molar anti-viral compounds with reduced toxicity. The 1,2,3-thiaselenazole represents a new class of potential compounds for the treatment of FIV and HIV.

Novel epidithiodiketopiperazines as anti-viral zinc ejectors of the Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) nucleocapsid protein as a model for HIV infection.

Focused libraries of multi-substituted epidithiodiketopiperazines (ETP) were prepared and evaluated for efficacy of inhibiting the nucleocapsid protein function of the Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) as a model for HIV. This activity was compared and contrasted to observed toxicity utilising an in-vitro cell culture approach. This resulted in the identification of several promising lead compounds with nanomolar potency in cells with low toxicity and a favorable therapeutic index.

New World feline APOBEC3 potently controls inter-genus lentiviral transmission.

BACKGROUND: The apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3; A3) gene family appears only in mammalian genomes. Some A3 proteins can be incorporated into progeny virions and inhibit lentiviral replication. In turn, the lentiviral viral infectivity factor (Vif) counteracts the A3-mediated antiviral effect by degrading A3 proteins. Recent investigations have suggested that lentiviral vif genes evolved to combat mammalian APOBEC3 proteins, and have further proposed that the Vif-A3 interaction may help determine the co-evolutionary history of cross-species lentiviral transmission in mammals. RESULTS: Here we address the co-evolutionary relationship between two New World felids, the puma (Puma concolor) and the bobcat (Lynx rufus), and their lentiviruses, which are designated puma lentiviruses (PLVs). We demonstrate that PLV-A Vif counteracts the antiviral action of APOBEC3Z3 (A3Z3) of both puma and bobcat, whereas PLV-B Vif counteracts only puma A3Z3. The species specificity of PLV-B Vif is irrespective of the phylogenic relationships of feline species in the genera Puma, Lynx and Acinonyx. We reveal that the amino acid at position 178 in the puma and bobcat A3Z3 is exposed on the protein surface and determines the sensitivity to PLV-B Vif-mediated degradation. Moreover, although both the puma and bobcat A3Z3 genes are polymorphic, their sensitivity/resistance to PLV Vif-mediated degradation is conserved. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study suggesting that the host A3 protein potently controls inter-genus lentiviral transmission. Our findings provide the first evidence suggesting that the co-evolutionary arms race between lentiviruses and mammals has occurred in the New World.

A naturally occurring feline APOBEC3 variant that loses anti-lentiviral activity by lacking two amino acid residues.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3) is a mammalian protein that restricts lentiviral replication. Various polymorphisms of mammalian APOBEC3 genes have been observed in humans, Old World monkeys and domestic cats; however, the genetic diversity of APOBEC3 genes in other mammals remains unaddressed. Here we identify a novel haplotype of the feline APOBEC3Z3 gene, an APOBEC3 gene that restricts feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) replication, in a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Compared to the previously identified lynx APOBEC3Z3 (haplotype I), the new sequence (haplotype II) harbours two amino acid deletions (Q16 and H17) and a nonsynonymous substitution (R68Q). Interestingly, lynx APOBEC3Z3 haplotype II does not suppress FIV infectivity, whereas haplotype I does. Mutagenesis experiments further revealed that deleting two amino acids (Q16 and H17) causes anti-FIV activity loss. This report demonstrates that a naturally occurring APOBEC3 variant loses anti-lentiviral activity through the deletion of two amino acid residues.

Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Evolutionarily Acquires Two Proteins, Vif and Protease, Capable of Antagonizing Feline APOBEC3.

The interplay between viral and host proteins has been well studied to elucidate virus-host interactions and their relevance to virulence. Mammalian genes encode apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3) proteins, which act as intrinsic restriction factors against lentiviruses. To overcome APOBEC3-mediated antiviral actions, lentiviruses have evolutionarily acquired an accessory protein, viral infectivity factor (Vif), and Vif degrades host APOBEC3 proteins via a ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent pathway. Although the Vif-APOBEC3 interaction and its evolutionary significance, particularly those of primate lentiviruses (including HIV) and primates (including humans), have been well investigated, those of nonprimate lentiviruses and nonprimates are poorly understood. Moreover, the factors that determine lentiviral pathogenicity remain unclear. Here, we focus on feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a pathogenic lentivirus in domestic cats, and the interaction between FIV Vif and feline APOBEC3 in terms of viral virulence and evolution. We reveal the significantly reduced diversity of FIV subtype B compared to that of other subtypes, which may associate with the low pathogenicity of this subtype. We also demonstrate that FIV subtype B Vif is less active with regard to feline APOBEC3 degradation. More intriguingly, we further reveal that FIV protease cleaves feline APOBEC3 in released virions. Taken together, our findings provide evidence that a lentivirus encodes two types of anti-APOBEC3 factors, Vif and viral protease.IMPORTANCE During the history of mammalian evolution, mammals coevolved with retroviruses, including lentiviruses. All pathogenic lentiviruses, excluding equine infectious anemia virus, have acquired the vif gene via evolution to combat APOBEC3 proteins, which are intrinsic restriction factors against exogenous lentiviruses. Here we demonstrate that FIV, a pathogenic lentivirus in domestic cats, antagonizes feline APOBEC3 proteins by both Vif and a viral protease. Furthermore, the Vif proteins of an FIV subtype (subtype B) have attenuated their anti-APOBEC3 activity through evolution. Our findings can be a clue to elucidate the complicated evolutionary processes by which lentiviruses adapt to mammals.

Neurologic disease in feline immunodeficiency virus infection: disease mechanisms and therapeutic interventions for NeuroAIDS.

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a lentivirus that causes immunosuppression through virus-mediated CD4+ T cell depletion in feline species. FIV infection is complicated by virus-induced disease in the nervous system. FIV enters the brain soon after primary infection and is detected as FIV-encoded RNA, DNA, and proteins in microglia, macrophages, and astrocytes. FIV infection activates neuroinflammatory pathways including cytokines, chemokines, proteases, and ROS with accompanying neuronal injury and loss. Neurobehavioral deficits during FIV infection are manifested as impaired motor and cognitive functions. Several treatment strategies have emerged from studies of FIV neuropathogenesis including the therapeutic benefits of antiretroviral therapies, other protease inhibitors, anti-inflammatory, and neurotrophic compounds. Recently, insulin's antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects were investigated in models of lentivirus brain infection. Insulin suppressed HIV-1 replication in human microglia as well as FIV replication of lymphocytes. Insulin treatment diminished cytokine and chemokine activation in HIV-infected microglia while also protecting neurons from HIV-1 Vpr protein-mediated neurotoxicity. Intranasal (IN) insulin delivery for 6 weeks suppressed FIV expression in the brains of treated cats. IN insulin also reduced neuroinflammation and protected neurons in the hippocampus, striatum, and neocortex of FIV-infected animals. These morphological and molecular effects of IN insulin were confirmed by neurobehavioral studies that showed IN insulin-treated FIV-infected animals displayed improved motor and cognitive performance compared to sham-treated FIV-infected animals. Thus, FIV infection of the nervous system provides a valuable comparative in vivo model for discovering and evaluating disease mechanisms as well as developing therapeutic strategies for NeuroAIDS in humans.

Viruses as indicators of contemporary host dispersal and phylogeography: an example of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIVPle ) in free-ranging African lion (Panthera leo).

Measuring contemporary dispersal in highly mobile terrestrial species is challenging, especially when species are characterized by low levels of population differentiation. Directly transmitted viruses can be used as a surrogate for traditional methods of tracking host movement. Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a species-specific lentivirus, which has an exceptionally high mutation rate and circulates naturally in wild felids. Using samples derived from 35 lion (Panthera leo) prides, we tested the prediction that FIV in lions (FIVPle ) can be used to track the dispersal of individuals between prides. As FIVPle subtypes are geographically structured throughout Africa, we predicted that this marker could be used to detect phylogeographic structure of lions at smaller spatial scales. Phylogenetic analyses of FIVPle pol-RT sequences showed that core pride members (females and subadults) shared evolutionary close viral lineages which differed from neighbouring core prides, whereas sequences from sexually mature males associated with the same pride were always the most divergent. In six instances, natal pride associations of divergent male lions could be inferred, on the assumption that FIVPle infections are acquired during early life stages. Congruence between the genetic pattern of FIV and pride structure suggests that vertical transmission plays an important role in lion FIV dynamics. At a fine spatial scale, significant viral geographic structuring was also detected between lions occurring north of the Olifants River within the Kruger National Park (KNP) and those occupying the southern and central regions. This pattern was further supported by phylogenetic analyses and the confinement of FIVPle subtype E to the northern region of KNP. The study provides new insights into the use of retroviral sequences to predict host dispersal and fine-scale contemporary geographic structure in a social felid species.

Insulin Treatment Prevents Neuroinflammation and Neuronal Injury with Restored Neurobehavioral Function in Models of HIV/AIDS Neurodegeneration.

HIV-1 infection of the brain causes the neurodegenerative syndrome HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), for which there is no specific treatment. Herein, we investigated the actions of insulin using ex vivo and in vivo models of HAND. Increased neuroinflammatory gene expression was observed in brains from patients with HIV/AIDS. The insulin receptor was detected on both neurons and glia, but its expression was unaffected by HIV-1 infection. Insulin treatment of HIV-infected primary human microglia suppressed supernatant HIV-1 p24 levels, reduced CXCL10 and IL-6 transcript levels, and induced peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) expression. Insulin treatment of primary human neurons prevented HIV-1 Vpr-mediated cell process retraction and death. In feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infected cats, daily intranasal insulin treatment (20.0 IU/200 µl for 6 weeks) reduced CXCL10, IL-6, and FIV RNA detection in brain, although PPAR-γ in glia was increased compared with PBS-treated FIV+ control animals. These molecular changes were accompanied by diminished glial activation in cerebral cortex and white matter of insulin-treated FIV+ animals, with associated preservation of cortical neurons. Neuronal counts in parietal cortex, striatum, and hippocampus were higher in the FIV+/insulin-treated group compared with the FIV+/PBS-treated group. Moreover, intranasal insulin treatment improved neurobehavioral performance, including both memory and motor functions, in FIV+ animals. Therefore, insulin exerted ex vivo and in vivo antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects in models of HAND, representing a new therapeutic option for patients with inflammatory or infectious neurodegenerative disorders including HAND. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) represent a spectrum disorder of neurocognitive dysfunctions resulting from HIV-1 infection. Although the exact mechanisms causing HAND are unknown, productive HIV-1 infection in the brain with associated neuroinflammation is a potential pathogenic mechanism resulting in neuronal damage and death. We report that, in HIV-infected microglia cultures, insulin treatment led to reduced viral replication and inflammatory gene expression. In addition, intranasal insulin treatment of experimentally feline immunodeficiency virus-infected animals resulted in improved motor and memory performances. We show that insulin restored expression of the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), which is suppressed by HIV-1 replication. Our findings indicate a unique function for insulin in improving neurological outcomes in lentiviral infections, implicating insulin as a therapeutic intervention for HAND.

Risk factors of different hemoplasma species infections in cats.

BACKGROUND: Hemoplasma species (spp.) commonly cause infections in cats worldwide. However, data on risk factors for infections are limited. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma spp. infections in cats in Southern Germany and to assess risk factors associated with infection. RESULTS: DNA was extracted from blood samples of 479 cats presented to different veterinary hospitals for various reasons. DNA of feline hemoplasmas was amplified by use of a previously reported PCR assay. Direct sequencing was used to confirm all purified amplicons and compared to hemoplasma sequences reported in GenBank. Results were evaluated in relation to the age, sex, housing conditions, feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) status of the cats. The overall hemoplasma prevalence rate was 9.4% (45/479; 95% CI: 7.08-12.36). 'Candidatus Mycoplasma (M.) haemominutum' (Mhm) DNA was amplified from 42 samples, M. haemofelis from 2, and M. haemocanis from 1 sample. There was a significantly higher risk of hemoplasma infection in cats from multi-cat households, in outdoor cats, as well as in cats with FIVinfection and in cats with abortive FeLV infection, but not in cats with progressive or regressive FeLV infection. CONCLUSIONS: Mhm infection is common in cats in Southern Germany. Higher prevalence in multi-cat households and associations with FeLV infection likely reflect the potential for direct transmission amongst cats. Outdoor access, male gender, and FIV infection are additional risk factors that might relate to aggressive interactions and exposure to vectors.

Determinants of FIV and HIV Vif sensitivity of feline APOBEC3 restriction factors.

BACKGROUND: Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a global pathogen of Felidae species and a model system for Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-induced AIDS. In felids such as the domestic cat (Felis catus), APOBEC3 (A3) genes encode for single-domain A3Z2s, A3Z3 and double-domain A3Z2Z3 anti-viral cytidine deaminases. The feline A3Z2Z3 is expressed following read-through transcription and alternative splicing, introducing a previously untranslated exon in frame, encoding a domain insertion called linker. Only A3Z3 and A3Z2Z3 inhibit Vif-deficient FIV. Feline A3s also are restriction factors for HIV and Simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV). Surprisingly, HIV-2/SIV Vifs can counteract feline A3Z2Z3. RESULTS: To identify residues in feline A3s that Vifs need for interaction and degradation, chimeric human-feline A3s were tested. Here we describe the molecular direct interaction of feline A3s with Vif proteins from cat FIV and present the first structural A3 model locating these interaction regions. In the Z3 domain we have identified residues involved in binding of FIV Vif, and their mutation blocked Vif-induced A3Z3 degradation. We further identified additional essential residues for FIV Vif interaction in the A3Z2 domain, allowing the generation of FIV Vif resistant A3Z2Z3. Mutated feline A3s also showed resistance to the Vif of a lion-specific FIV, indicating an evolutionary conserved Vif-A3 binding. Comparative modelling of feline A3Z2Z3 suggests that the residues interacting with FIV Vif have, unlike Vif-interacting residues in human A3s, a unique location at the domain interface of Z2 and Z3 and that the linker forms a homeobox-like domain protruding of the Z2Z3 core. HIV-2/SIV Vifs efficiently degrade feline A3Z2Z3 by possible targeting the linker stretch connecting both Z-domains. CONCLUSIONS: Here we identified in feline A3s residues important for binding of FIV Vif and a unique protein domain insertion (linker). To understand Vif evolution, a structural model of the feline A3 was developed. Our results show that HIV Vif binds human A3s differently than FIV Vif feline A3s. The linker insertion is suggested to form a homeo-box domain, which is unique to A3s of cats and related species, and not found in human and mouse A3s. Together, these findings indicate a specific and different A3 evolution in cats and human.

Phylogenetic characterisation of feline immunodeficiency virus in naturally infected cats in Croatia indicates additional heterogeneity of subtype B in Europe.

This study was performed on 29 domestic cats with a variety of clinical signs, possibly related to FIV infection. Blood samples were tested by a rapid immunochromatographic (ICA) procedure for detection of FIV antibodies. Subsequently, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to amplify a portion of the proviral gag gene. All 11 positive PCR products were sequenced and compared with previously reported FIV sequences. Croatian proviral isolates that could be amplified were clustered within subtype B, and additional heterogeneity was confirmed by the formation of three separate clusters. Phylogenetic analysis of circulating strains in Croatia and in southeast Europe is necessary to improve diagnostic methods and selection of the appropriate vaccinal strains.