Endoparasites of the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and mesocarnivores in Central Portugal.

At the end of the nineteenth century, massive population declines were observed in carnivores due to the emergence of infectious diseases. This study aims to investigate, by means of coprological analysis, the prevalence and intensity of the parasites that infect the endangered Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus and two mesocarnivores (the red fox Vulpes vulpes and the stone marten Martes foina) in Central Portugal. In total, 67.2% of the samples screened were infected; Toxascaris leonina (40.6%) was the parasite with the highest prevalence, followed by Ancylostomatidae and Eimeria spp. (28.1%). Eimeria spp. was found in stone marten with the highest infection rate (37,800 OPG), followed by T. leonina (10,100 EPG) in a red fox sample. Moderate to high levels of parasitic infections were identified in 73.3% of red foxes from the western area. Our results highlight the possibility of cross-infection among these carnivore species and cross-contamination in the wildlife-livestock-human interface.

Spatiotemporal interactions of a novel mesocarnivore community in an urban environment before and during SARS-CoV-2 lockdown.

Studying species interactions and niche segregation under human pressure provides important insights into species adaptation, community functioning and ecosystem stability. Due to their high plasticity in behaviour and diet, urban mesocarnivores are ideal species for studying community assembly in novel communities. We analysed the spatial and temporal species interactions of an urban mesocarnivore community composed of the red fox Vulpes vulpes and the marten Martes sp. as native species, the raccoon Procyon lotor as invasive species, and the cat Felis catus as a domestic species in combination with human disturbance modulated by the SARS-CoV-2 lockdown effect that happened while the study was conducted. We analysed camera trap data and applied a joint species distribution model to understand not only the environmental variables influencing the detection of mesocarnivores and their use intensity of environmental features but also the species' co-occurrences while accounting for environmental variables. We then assessed whether they displayed temporal niche partitioning based on activity analyses, and finally analysed at a smaller temporal scale the time of delay after the detection of another focal species. We found that species were more often detected and displayed a higher use intensity in gardens during the SARS-CoV-2 lockdown period, while showing a shorter temporal delay during the same period, meaning a high human-induced spatiotemporal overlap. All three wild species spatially co-occurred within the urban area, with a positive response of raccoons to cats in detection and use intensity, whereas foxes showed a negative trend towards cats. When assessing the temporal partitioning, we found that all wild species showed overlapping nocturnal activities. All species displayed temporal segregation based on temporal delay. According to the temporal delay analyses, cats were the species avoided the most by all wild species. To conclude, we found that although the wild species were positively associated in space, the avoidance occurred at a smaller temporal scale, and human pressure in addition led to high spatiotemporal overlap. Our study sheds light to the complex patterns underlying the interactions in a mesocarnivore community both spatially and temporally, and the exacerbated effect of human pressure on community dynamics.

COVID-19 related travel restrictions prevented numerous wildlife deaths on roads: A comparative analysis of results from 11 countries.

Millions of wild animals are killed annually on roads worldwide. During spring 2020, the volume of road traffic was reduced globally as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. We gathered data on wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) from Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Norway, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and for Scotland and England within the United Kingdom. In all studied countries WVC statistics tend to be dominated by large mammals (various deer species and wild boar), while information on smaller mammals as well as birds are less well recorded. The expected number of WVC for 2020 was predicted on the basis of 2015-2019 WVC time series representing expected WVC numbers under normal traffic conditions. Then, the forecasted and reported WVC data were compared. The results indicate varying levels of WVC decrease between countries during the COVID-19 related traffic flow reduction (CRTR). While no significant change was determined in Sweden, where the state-wide response to COVID-19 was the least intensive, a decrease as marked as 37.4% was identified in Estonia. The greatest WVC decrease, more than 40%, was determined during the first weeks of CRTR for Estonia, Spain, Israel, and Czechia. Measures taken during spring 2020 allowed the survival of large numbers of wild animals which would have been killed under normal traffic conditions. The significant effects of even just a few weeks of reduced traffic, help to highlight the negative impacts of roads on wildlife mortality and the need to boost global efforts of wildlife conservation, including systematic gathering of roadkill data.

Abiotic conditions mediate intraguild interactions between mammalian carnivores.

Intraguild (IG) interactions are common among mammalian carnivores, can include intraguild predation (IGP) and interspecific killing (IK), and are often asymmetrical, where a larger more dominant species (IGpredator ) kills a smaller one (IGprey ). According to ecological theory, the potential for an IGpredator and IGprey to coexist depends on whether the direct consumptive benefits for the IGpredator are substantial (IGP) or insignificant (IK), the extent to which the IGprey is the superior exploitative competitor on shared prey resources, and overall ecosystem productivity. We used resource selection models and spatially explicit age and harvest data for two closely related mesopredators that engage in IG interactions, American martens (Martes americana; IGprey ) and fishers (Pekania pennanti; IGpredator ), to identify drivers of distributions, delineate areas of sympatry and allopatry, and explore the role of an apex predator (coyote; Canis latrans) on these interactions. Model selection revealed that fisher use of this landscape was strongly influenced by late winter abiotic conditions, but other bottom-up (forest composition) and top-down (coyote abundance) factors also influenced their distribution. Overall, fisher probability of use was higher where late winter temperatures were warmer, snowpack was deeper, and measures of productivity were greater. Martens were constrained to areas of the landscape where the probability of fisher use, coyote abundance, and productivity were low and selected for forest conditions that presumably maximized prey availability. Marten age data indicated an increased proportion of juveniles outside of the predicted area of sympatry, suggesting that few animals survived >1.5 years in this area that supported higher densities of fishers and coyotes. Consistent with asymmetrical IG interaction theory, the IGpredator (fishers and, to a lesser degree, coyotes) competitively excluded the IGprey (martens) from more productive, milder temperature habitats, whereas IGpredators and IGprey coexisted in low productivity environments, where a combination of abiotic and biotic conditions enabled the IGprey to be the superior exploitative competitor.

Trichinella spp. in wild mesocarnivores in an endemic setting.

Human trichinellosis and Trichinella infection in pigs are both still endemic in the Balkans, including Serbia. Because of the flow between the sylvatic and the domestic cycle of Trichinella spp., monitoring wildlife has been recommended for the risk assessment of Trichinella spp. infection in swine. We have previously shown the presence of Trichinella infection in wild carnivores including the wolf and the golden jackal, and here we report on Trichinella infection in several other mesocarnivore species. From a total of 469 animals collected between 1994 and 2013, Trichinella larvae were detected in 29 (6.2%, 95% CI = 4.0-8.4) animals, including 14 red foxes (4.7%), 7 wild cats (35%), 5 beech martens (4.8%), 2 pine martens (16.7%), and 1 European badger (6.25%). No Trichinella larvae were detected in the examined specimens of European polecats, steppe polecats and European otters. Species identification of the Trichinella larvae performed for 18 positive samples revealed T. spiralis in 77.8% and T. britovi in 22.2% of the isolates. Both species were detected in red foxes and wild cats. The predominance of T. spiralis in wildlife in Serbia indicates the (past or present) spillover of this pathogen from domestic to wild animals.

Canine distemper virus may affect European wild cat populations in Central Spain.

The main objective of this brief communication is to inform about the exposure to certain pathogens of interest for mesocarnivores in wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) that inhabit a human-domestic-wild ecotone located in a Natural Park (Serranía de Cuenca, Central Spain). Blood and mucosal swabs (nasal, conjunctival and rectal) samples were collected from nine alive animals to detect canine distemper virus (CDV), parvovirus (CPV/FPV), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), feline coronavirus (FCoV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), Leptospira interrogans, Chlamydia felis, Ehrlichia canis, Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum. ELISA, immunochromatograpy, microscopy agglutination test and PCR assays were used. The results show the first worldwide detection of exposure of wildcats to L. interrogans (3 positive/9 analysed) and the first detection of exposure to CVD (7/9), of carriers ofC felis (2/9) and of fecal spreading of CPV-FPV (2/9) in wildcats in Spain. Exposure to T. gondii and CPV-FPV was detected in 5 of the 9 wildcats analysed, and to FelV in 4 of 9. No FIV, FCoV, Ehrlichia canis and Neospora caninum were detected. The results reveal the circulation of pathogens among the wildcat population studied, but more vigilance is needed for an accurate assessment of the impact of these pathogens on the health status of this population.

American marten occupancy and activity patterns at the southern extent of their range in the eastern United States.

The relatively recent rediscovery of an American marten (Martes americana) population that was reintroduced over 30 years ago in southern Vermont provides an opportunity to investigate the relative importance of other mesocarnivores, and forest stand (e.g., DBH, downed logs, vertical structure) and habitat variables to their presence on the Green Mountain National Forest. Marten are state-listed as an endangered species in Vermont and occur there at the southern extent of their range in the eastern United States. We collected detection data from camera surveys in 5 km2 units between 2019 and 2021 (December-April; n = 40 units, 238 cameras). We examined activity patterns and applied an occupancy modeling framework to the detection data to assess the relative importance of covariates at unit and camera levels and assess interactions of marten with other mesocarnivores. We did not find any unit-level occupancy models with significant covariates that were better supported than the base model in the single-season unit-level analysis. Distance to the nearest release site was the covariate most supported for detectability at both spatial scales, and marten occupancy at the camera level was positively influenced by the amount of canopy cover. Two species interaction models did not indicate any positive or negative association beyond random with other mesocarnivores and activity patterns among mesocarnivores had substantial overlap. Marten recovery since the time of the reintroduction appears slow, and even 30 years later, the marten distribution is limited and suggests that dispersal is restricted at some level. We recommend a further investigation of the possible impact of other mesocarnivores to juvenile survival or other vital demographic rate (e.g., recruitment) in marten that were not explicitly measured in this study.

Habitat modification destabilizes spatial associations and persistence of Neotropical carnivores.

Spatial relationships between sympatric species underpin biotic interactions, structure ecological communities, and maintain ecosystem health. However, the resilience of interspecific spatial associations to human habitat modification remains largely unknown, particularly in tropical regions where anthropogenic impacts are often greatest. We applied multi-state multi-species occurrence models to camera trap data across nine tropical landscapes in Colombia to understand how prominent threats to forest ecosystems influence Neotropical carnivore occurrence and interspecific spatial associations, with implications for biotic interactions. We show that carnivore occurrence represents a delicate balance between local environmental conditions and interspecific interactions that can be compromised in areas of extensive habitat modification. The stability of carnivore spatial associations depends on forest cover to mediate antagonistic encounters with apex predators and structurally intact forests to facilitate coexistence between competing mesocarnivores. Notably, we demonstrate that jaguars play an irreplaceable role in spatially structuring mesocarnivore communities, providing novel evidence on their role as keystone species. With increasing global change, conserving both the extent and quality of tropical forests is imperative to support carnivores and preserve the spatial associations that underpin ecosystem stability and resilience.

Syntopy between Endangered San Joaquin Kit Foxes and Potential Competitors in an Urban Environment.

The endangered San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica; SJKF) occurs in the city of Bakersfield, CA, where several putative competitors also occur, including domestic cats (Felis catus), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and opossums (Didephis virginiana). We used data from a multi-year (2015-2022) city-wide camera station survey to assess whether the other species were simply sympatric with SJKF or coexisting syntopically (i.e., occurring in the same habitats without apparent competition). Annual detection rates for the other species were not correlated with SJKF rates either within SJKF habitat suitability categories (low, medium, and high) or for all categories combined. Also, detection rates for the other species did not increase in response to a significant decline in SJKF abundance caused by sarcoptic mange. The use of all SJKF habitat suitability categories by the other species and co-detections with SJKF at camera stations indicate high spatial overlap. Interference and exploitative competition between the species are apparently negligible, likely due to similar body sizes and high resource abundance. Thus, SJKF and the other species appear to be coexisting syntopically in the urban environment, resulting in a significant additional SJKF population that facilitates range-wide conservation and recovery of this endangered species.

Parasites of the Reintroduced Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) and Sympatric Mesocarnivores in Extremadura, Spain.

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is one of the most endangered felid species in the world. Conservation efforts have increased its population size and distribution and reinforced their genetic diversity through captive breeding and reintroduction programmes. Among several threats that the Iberian lynx faces, infectious and parasitic diseases have underlined effects on the health of their newly reintroduced populations, being essential to identify the primary sources of these agents and assess populations health status. To achieve this, 79 fresh faecal samples from Iberian lynx and sympatric mesocarnivores were collected in the reintroduction area of Extremadura, Spain. Samples were submitted to copromicroscopic analyses to assess parasite diversity, prevalence, and mean intensity of parasite burden. Overall, 19 (24.1%, ±15.1-35.0) samples were positive for at least one enteric parasite species. Parasite diversity and prevalence were higher in the Iberian lynx (43.8%) compared with the others mesocarnivores under study (e.g., the red fox Vulpes vulpes and the Egyptian mongoose Herpestes ichneumon). Ancylostomatidae and Toxocara cati were the most prevalent (15.6%) parasites. Obtained results revealed that Iberian lynx role as predator control might have reduced parasite cross-transmission between this felid and mesocarnivores due to their decreasing abundances. Surveillance programs must include regular monitoring of this endangered felid, comprising mesocarnivores, but also domestic/feral and wild cat communities.

Prevalence of protozoan parasites in small and medium mammals in Texas, USA.

Wildlife interaction with humans increases the risk of potentially infected ticks seeking an opportunistic blood meal and consequently leading to zoonotic transmission. In the United States, human babesiosis is a tick-borne zoonosis most commonly caused by the intraerythrocytic protozoan parasite, Babesia microti. The presence of Babesia microti and other species of Babesia within Texas has not been well characterized, and the molecular prevalence of these pathogens within wildlife species is largely unknown. Small (e.g. rodents) and medium sized mammalian species (e.g. racoons) represent potential reservoirs for specific species of Babesia, though this relationship has not been thoroughly evaluated within Texas. This study aimed to characterize the molecular prevalence of Babesia species within small and medium sized mammals at two sites in East Texas with an emphasis on detection of pathogen presence in these two contrasting wild mammal groups at these sites. To that end, a total of 480 wild mammals representing eight genera were trapped, sampled, and screened for Babesia species using the TickPath layerplex qPCR assay. Two sites were selected for animal collection, including The Big Thicket National Preserve and Gus Engeling Wildlife Management Area. Molecular analysis revealed the prevalence of various Babesia and Hepathozoon species at 0.09% each, and Sarcocystis at 0.06% . Continued molecular prevalence surveys of tick-borne pathogens in Texas wild mammals will be needed to provide novel information as to which species of Babesia are most prevalent and identify specific wildlife species as pathogen reservoirs.

A Study of Population Size and Activity Patterns and Their Relationship to the Prey Species of the Eurasian Lynx Using a Camera Trapping Approach.

Revealing the behavioral relationships between predators and their prey is fundamental in understanding the community structure and ecosystem functions of such animals. This study aimed at detecting the population size and activity patterns of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) (along with its prey) by camera trapping monitoring from 2014 to 2017 at the Saihanwula nature reserve in central Inner Mongolia. The total effective trapping days were 29,892 and 20 lynx were identified from 343 trapping photos based on the inner side patterns of their forelimbs. The daily activity rhythms of the lynx overlapped with those of different prey in different seasons. The yearly activity pattern of the lynx was influenced by its main prey's biology. In conclusion, this study reveals that the activity patterns of the top predator matched those of its prey in different time periods. Habitat management strategies promoting the restoration of prey communities would benefit the lynx in maintaining a stable community structure.

Primeros registros del tigrillo Leopardus pardalis (Carnivora, Felidae) en el Santuario Histórico de Machupicchu, Cusco, Perú / First records of ocelot Leopardus pardalis (Carnivora, Felidae) from Machupicchu Historical Sanctuary, Cusco, Peru

Resumen Se reporta por primera vez la presencia del tigrillo u ocelote (Leopardus pardalis), en el Santuario Histórico de Machupicchu, mediante el uso de cámaras trampa. Se obtuvieron 21 registros fotográficos independientes en cuatro sectores de bosque montano entre junio de 2018 y marzo del 2020. El rango altitudinal registrado para esta especie dentro del Santuario comprende desde 2193 hasta 3414 metros de altitud, lo que incluye el segundo registro a mayor elevación en el Perú. Los registros indican un patrón de actividad catemeral, es decir sin ninguna preferencia de actividad horaria entre el día y la noche, y sugieren que la presencia de tigrillo en algunas áreas a más de 3000 m puede ser más común de lo que se pensaba, con ejemplares presentes todo el año.

Abstract We report for the first time the presence of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), in the Machupicchu Historic Sanctuary, using camera traps. Twenty-one independent photographic records were obtained in four montane forest sectors between June 2018 and March 2020. The altitudinal range recorded for this species within the Sanctuary ranges from 2193 to 3414 m of altitude, which includes the second highest elevation record in Peru. The records indicate a pattern of cathemeral activity, with no time preference between day and night, and suggest that the presence of ocelots in some areas above 3000 m may be more common than previously thought, with specimens present year-round.

Occurrence and molecular genotyping of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in wild mesocarnivores in Spain.

There is a surprisingly scarce amount of epidemiological and molecular data on the prevalence, frequency, and diversity of the intestinal protozoan parasites Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in wildlife in general and mesocarnivore species in particular. Consequently, the extent of the cyst/oocyst environmental contamination attributable to these wild host species and their potential implications for public veterinary health remain largely unknown. In this molecular epidemiological survey a total of 193 individual faecal samples from badgers (Meles meles, n=70), ferrets (Mustela putorius furo, n=2), genets (Genetta genetta, n=6), Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus, n=6), beech martens (Martes foina, n=8), mongooses (Herpestes ichneumon, n=2), otters (Lutra lutra, n=2), polecats (Mustela putorius, n=2), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes, n=87), wildcats (Felis silvestris, n=2), and wolves (Canis lupus, n=6) were obtained from road-killed, hunted, and accidentally found carcasses, and from camera-trap surveys or animals entering rescue shelters, during the period December 2003-April 2016. Investigated specimens were collected in five Spanish autonomous regions including Andalusia (n=1), Asturias (n=69), Basque Country (n=49), Castile-La Mancha (n=38), and Extremadura (n=36). The presence of cysts/oocysts was confirmed by PCR-based methods targeting the small subunit (ssu) ribosomal RNA gene of these parasite species. Genotyping of the obtained isolates were attempted at appropriate markers including the glutamate dehydrogenase (G. duodenalis) and the 60-kDa glycoprotein (C. parvum and C. ubiquitum) loci. Overall, G. duodenalis was detected in 8% (7/87) of red foxes, a single beech marten, and a single wolf, respectively. Cryptosporidium was identified in 3% (2/70) of badgers, 8% (7/87) of red foxes, a single genet, and a single mongoose, respectively. None of the nine G. duodenalis isolates generated could be genotyped at the assemblage/sub-assemblage level. Out of the nine Cryptosporidium isolates successfully characterized, three were identified as C. canis (one in a mongoose and two in red foxes), and three as C. parvum (one in a badger and three in red foxes). The remaining three isolates were assigned to C. felis (in a red fox), C. hominis (in a badger), and C. ubiquitum (in a red fox), respectively. Two additional Cryptosporidium isolates infecting a badger and a genet, respectively, were untypable. The red fox was confirmed as a suitable host of potentially zoonotic Cryptosporidium species, mainly C. parvum and C. ubiquitum. The high mobility and wide home range of red foxes, together with their increasing presence in urban and peri-urban settings, may led to the overlapping of sylvatic and domestic cycles of the parasite, and consequently, to an increased risk of cryptosporidiosis in production animals and humans. The detection of C. hominis oocysts in a badger raises the question of whether this finding represents a true infection or a sporadic event of mechanical passage of C. hominis oocyst of anthroponotic origin.

Cost and Relative Value of Road Kill Surveys for Enhanced Rabies Surveillance in Raccoon Rabies Management.

Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) requires knowledge of the spatial-temporal distribution of rabies virus variants targeted for control. Rabies-exposure based public health surveillance alone may not provide a sound basis for ORV decisions. The value and cost of road kill surveys was evaluated for the late spring⁻early fall 2005⁻2007 as a part of enhanced rabies surveillance in northern New York, where raccoon rabies is enzootic and ORV has occurred since the late 1990s. Structured surveys were conducted to collect raccoons and other meso-carnivores for rabies testing at the New York State Rabies Laboratory. Of the 209 meso-carnivore heads collected and submitted for testing, 175 were testable by direct fluorescent antibody; none was rabid. Rabies was also not reported through public health surveillance in survey zones during 2005⁻2007. Overall, survey costs were $37,118 (2016 USD). Salaries and benefits accounted for 61% of costs, followed by fuel (22%), vehicle depreciation (14%), and sample shipping (3%). Mean daily distance driven was 303 ± 37 km and 381 ± 28 km for total road kills and raccoons, respectively. Costs/road kill collected and submitted was $176/all species and $224/raccoon. This study provides costs for planning road kill surveys and underscores the need to continually improve enhanced rabies surveillance approaches to support ORV decision making.