Applying the constraints-led approach to facilitate exploratory learning of the volleyball serve.

Exploration is an important feature for successfully learning motor skills. However, game rules such as one attempt to serve in volleyball could discourage exploration due to an individual's fear of making a mistake and forfeiting a point. The constraints-led approach is a coaching methodology that encourages exploration by selectively manipulating task constraints such as rules. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine whether the addition of the task constraint of a second serve would encourage volleyball players to use their first serve to explore their action capabilities. Forty male high school students competed in two volleyball games; a regulation (single serve) game and a modified (2-serve) game. Participants reported that having a second chance at serving allowed them to feel more confident and relaxed which facilitated the exploration of their serving capability. In the 2-serve game, participants attempted a more powerful (M = 60.3 km/hr), and complex (M = 44.5% jump topspin serves) first serve, compared to the regulation game (M = 55.6 km/hr; M = 25.2% jump topspin serves). Findings suggest that to facilitate learning of motor skills, it is important to manipulate the practice environment using task constraints to address the factors that restrict exploration.

Match simulation practice may not represent competitive match play in professional Australian football.

Match simulation in team sport should sample representative constraints and behaviours to those observed in competitive matches to enhance near skill transfer. This study compared task constraints (field length, field width, length per width ratio, space per player), time-standardised skill metrics (goals, shots on goal, handballs, kicks, marks, turnovers, tackles, handball proficiency, kick proficiency) and cooperative passing metrics (connectedness, indegree variability and outdegree variability) between match simulation practice and competitive Australian Football League (AFL) games for one professional team. MANOVAs identified activity-related differences for task constraints, skill metrics and cooperative passing networks. During match simulation, goals were scored more frequently, but with less passing actions per minute. Receiving and distributing passing networks were more centralised (reliance on fewer key individuals), with less turnovers and tackles per minute compared to AFL matches. If match simulation is designed to reflect competition, then player and team skill preparation may be compromised. Furthermore, the competing demands in high-performance sport may restrict the degree of representativeness that can be achieved during practice. These findings provide valuable insight and may assist practitioners and/or coaches to understand the value of match simulation practice and to maximise near skill transfer from match simulation to competition.

Scaling junior sport competition: A body-scaling approach?

The design of the junior sport competition environment plays a critical role in attracting and retaining children as life-long participants. Critically, however, the guidelines governing the design of junior sport are rarely scrutinized. With this in mind, our aim is to offer sports authorities a method to systematically assess the suitability of guidelines. The most popular junior ball sport competitions in Australia were assessed in relation to the scaling of task constraints and compared to children's corresponding physical maturation and/or performance measures. This assessment enabled the calculation of pi ratios, which were then used to categorise constraints as either (1) undersized, (2) appropriately sized or (3) oversized. Results revealed that most sports' ask children to play in oversized conditions, particularly in the under 9 to under 12 age groups and in boys' competitions. The task constraints that had the highest percentage of pi ratios appropriately sized were match duration and goal size. Comparatively, ball size and field length had the highest percentage of pi ratios classified as oversized. We contend that the systematic approach applied in this article should be used by sports authorities to understand the extent of scaling constraints in junior sport.

Optimization of training for professional rugby union players: investigating the impact of different small-sided games models on GPS-derived performance metrics.

Introduction: Professional rugby union players can improve their performance by engaging in small-sided games (SSGs), which simulate the movement patterns of the game. This study collected metrics related to running performance and mechanical workload and their relative values from both forward and back positions, aiming to explore the impact of different SSGs factors on athlete workload, as well as the workload difference between official games (OGs) and SSGs. Methods: The monitored GPS data were collected from SSGs with different player numbers and pitch sizes (five sessions), SSG rules (5 weeks, four sessions per week), and OGs conducted throughout the year. Additionally, the study compared changes in players' sprinting performance before and after two SSG sessions. Results: Backs had greater workload than forwards. Less space and number of players SSG (4 vs. 4, 660 m2) was conducive to facilitating training for players in acceleration and deceleration. Conversely, larger spaces were associated with improved running performance. However, the introduction of a floater had no significant impact on performance improvement. Additionally, the 7 vs. 4 model (seven players engaged with four opponents) resulted in the greatest workload during medium-hard accelerations (F = 52.76-88.23, p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.19-0.28). Japan touch model allowed for more high-speed running training (F = 47.93-243.55, p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 1.52). The workload performed by SSGs can almost cover that of OGs (F = 23.36-454.21, p < 0.05, ηp 2 = 0.03-0.57). In the context of ηp 2, values around 0.01, 0.06 and 0.14 indicate small, medium and large effects respectively. Discussion: However, given the significantly higher workload of SSGs and the slight decrease in sprinting performance, further research is required to examine the training patterns of SSGs. This study provided insight into the impact of player numbers, pitch size, and rules on rugby-specific SSGs. Coaches should optimize SSG setups for enhanced training outcomes, ensuring the long-term development of physical capacity, technical and tactical skills.

Can different training methods reduce the kinematic risk factors of ACL injuries in children?

According to the research, a lack of neuromuscular control is a major cause of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury during locomotion. This study aimed to determine the influence of various prescriptive and Constrained Led Approach (CLA) training approaches on lower extremity kinematics and stride length in children aged 3-5 years old while walking and running. Thirty-six children with a mean age of 4.79 years were separated into three groups: 1- prescriptive training group (n = 10), 2- CLA training group (n = 11), and 3- Control group (n = 10). The kinematics of the hip, knee and ankle joints in the sagittal plane at the moment of heel contact and toe-off were recorded before and after six weeks of intervention. According to the MANOVA, there was no statistically significant difference between the two training techniques in the joint angles at heel contact and toe-off during walking and running after intervention (p ≥ 0.05). However, there was a significant difference in the kinematic characteristics of walking and running between the training and the control groups (p ≤ 0.05). The two training techniques showed a statistically significant difference in stride length during running (p ≤ 0.05). The results indicated that prescriptive and CLA training are effective at altering the kinematics and distance factors underlying children's walking and running abilities.

Advice from "pracademics" of how to apply ecological dynamics theory to practice design.

There has been an increase interest in knowing and enacting pedagogical approaches such as the Constraints-led Approach (CLA) and Nonlinear Pedagogy (NLP) which are underpinned by Ecological Dynamics in recent years among practitioners. While there seems to be a perceived uptake of such pedagogical approaches that encourages exploratory learning and the development of individualised movement solutions, there are still concerns on how these pedagogical approaches are enacted on the ground. In this paper, we the authors, as "pracademics", attempted to address some of the common concerns that we are aware of from our regular interactions with academics and practitioners. In brief, we highlighted some of the common challenges related to sense making concepts from Ecological Dynamics and building connections to practice. We stressed the need to invest time to think differently to create representative learning environment, rethink how assessment is to be done, finding a balance between theoretical jargon and practical application as well as intentionally situating coach development and support. We may not have all the answers, but we hope this paper could provide a useful starting point on how to apply Ecological Dynamics Theory to practice design.

There is no rush to upgrade the tennis racket in young intermediate competitive players: The effects of scaling racket on serve biomechanics and performance.

Introduction: Scaling the equipment of young athletes is justified by the constraints-led approach introduced in motor learning. The aim of the present study is to analyze the effect of racket scaling on the serve biomechanics and performance parameters for young tennis players (between 8 and 11 years-old). Methods: Nine young intermediate competitive tennis players (age: 9.9 ± 1.0 years) performed maximal effort flat serves with three different rackets (scaled 23 inches, scaled 25 inches and full-size 27 inches) in a randomized order. A radar measured ball speed while shoulder and elbow kinetics and upper and lower limb kinematics were calculated with a 20-camera optical motion capture system. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to analyze the effect of the three rackets on ball speed, percentage of serve in, serve kinematics and kinetics. Results: No significant differences in ball speed, maximal racket head velocity and percentage of serve in were observed between the three rackets. The lowest maximal upper limb kinetics and the highest upper limb maximal angular velocities were obtained with the scaled 23 inches racket. Discussion: Using scaled rackets has the advantage to decrease shoulder and elbow loadings without reducing serve performance. Consequently, the present results incite tennis coaches and parents to not upgrade too soon the size of the racket in young intermediate tennis players to avoid overuse injury risks in the long term. Our results showed that the full-size 27 inches racket induced higher lower limb kinematics. As a consequence, occasionally serving with a fullsize racket can be a sparingly interesting intervention to help young tennis players to intuitively and immediately increase their leg drive action, allowing a more functional representation of the elite junior serve.

What place does elite sport have for women? A scoping review of constraints.

Introduction: Despite increases in participation and raised attention for girls and women in sports, female sport is still based on male evidence that ignores gendered differences and experiences of unequal treatment and marginalization from grassroots to elite sport. This paper aimed to critically interrogate the place that women have in the male preserve of elite sport by conducting a two-part study. Methods: First, we provided a brief sociohistorical analysis of gender in sport as a means to move away from a decontextualized and universalized approach dominating in sport science literature. We then conducted a scoping review following PRISMA-ScR guidelines to synthesize existing sport science literature that implemented Newell's constraints-led approach to examine elite performance. Results: Ten studies were identified, none of which collected demographic data or centred on female athletes and the effects of sociocultural constraints on their performance. Instead, male-centred, masculine sports and physiological profiles dominated the identified studies. Discussion: We discussed these results considering critical sport research and cultural sport psychology literature to offer an integrative, interdisciplinary approach to advocate for more culturally sensitive, context-specific interpretations of gender as a sociocultural constraint. We put forth a call to action for sport science researchers, practitioners, and decision-makers to move away from implementing male evidence in female sport and attend to the unique needs of female athletes. Practical suggestions aimed to help stakeholders reimagine elite sport by celebrating these [potential] differences as strengths for promoting gender equity in sport.

Factors associated with cooperative network connectedness in a professional Australian football small-sided game.

OBJECTIVES: Connectedness is a cooperative network measure that describes how well players in the team bi-directionally connect and how easily reachable they are to other players. It has been associated with an increased probability of winning competitive matches in professional Australian Football (AF), although applications towards training have not been reported. Therefore, this study investigated associations between constraints manipulated by professional AF coaches and the connectedness of cooperative passing networks during a small-sided game (SSG). DESIGN: Data were collected describing the task constraints manipulated by professional coaches across one SSG performed on multiple occasions. The SSG focused on transitioning between defence and attack and was performed fifteen times across a whole season, resulting in 36 observations of team connectedness. METHOD: A linear mixed-effects model was constructed to examine the collective influence of constraints manipulations made by professional coaches (e.g. field size) and team skill characteristics (e.g. kick efficiency) on connectedness scores. RESULTS: The number of team shots on goal and the time on task both positively contributed to connectedness scores, explaining 65% of its variance. CONCLUSION: The findings show that the number of shots on goal and the time on task may be used to elicit higher or lower connectedness scores in AF SSGs. Skill acquisition specialists, in conjunction with coaching staff, can use these metrics to aid practice design in professional AF or indeed other invasion-style team sports.

The influence of environmental and task constraint interaction on skilled behaviour in Australian Football.

The design of sports practice environments can be informed through data collected and analysed according to principles of the constraints-led approach. In this study, three manipulated environmental (area per player, number of players and team outnumber) and two task (activity objective and disposal limitations) constraints were measured during professional Australian Football training activities (n = 112) to determine their relationship with skilled behaviour. Linear regression modelling of the five manipulated constraints explained 68% of the variance in disposal frequency but only 22% in skill efficiency. Activities with scoring objectives, limited to kicking or which permitted all disposals, reduced the disposal frequency per player. Activities which permitted all disposals were also weakly, negatively associated with skill efficiency. A Classification Based on Association analysis measured the interaction between manipulated constraints and their relationships with possession time and pressure. When compared to the null model, the analysis improved pressure classification accuracy by 5.9% and did not improve possession time classification accuracy. This indicates skills were often performed under varying spatial and temporal constraints during many of the training activities. This study presents multivariate analytical methods which consider constraint interaction, enhancing how practitioners can evaluate and inform training design in sport.

Modelling the Influence of Task Constraints on Goal Kicking Performance in Australian Rules Football.

BACKGROUND: The primary aim of this study was to determine the influence of task constraints, from an ecological perspective, on goal kicking performance in Australian football. The secondary aim was to compare the applicability of three analysis techniques; logistic regression, a rule induction approach and conditional inference trees to achieve the primary aim. In this study, an ecological perspective has been applied to explore the impact of task constraints on shots on goal in the Australian Football League, such as shot type, field location and pressure. Analytical techniques can increase the understanding of competition environments and the influence of constraints on skilled events. Differing analytical techniques can produce varying outputs styles which can impact the applicability of the technique. Logistic regression, Classification Based on Associations rules and conditional inference trees were conducted to determine constraint interaction and their influence on goal kicking, with both the accuracy and applicability of each approach assessed. RESULTS: Each analysis technique had similar accuracy, ranging between 63.5% and 65.4%. For general play shots, the type of pressure and location particularly affected the likelihood of a shot being successful. Location was also a major influence on goal kicking performance from set shots. CONCLUSIONS: When different analytical methods display similar performance on a given problem, those should be prioritised which show the highest interpretability and an ability to guide decision-making in a manner similar to what is currently observed in the organisation.

Giving Ideas Some Legs or Legs Some Ideas? Children's Motor Creativity Is Enhanced by Physical Activity Enrichment: Direct and Mediated Paths.

Approaches to foster motor creativity differ according to whether creative movements are assumed to be enacted creative ideas, or solutions to emerging motor problems that arise from task and environmental constraints. The twofold aim of the current study was to investigate whether (1) an enriched physical education (PE) intervention delivered with a joint constraints-led and cognitive stimulation approach fosters motor creativity, and the responsiveness to the intervention is moderated by baseline motor and cognitive skills and sex; (2) the intervention may benefit motor creativity through gains in motor coordination, executive function, and creative thinking. Ninety-five children, aged 6-9 years, participated in a 6-month group randomized trial with specialist-led enriched PE vs. generalist-led conventional PE. Before and after the intervention, Bertsch's Test of Motor Creativity, Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Random Number Generation task and Torrance Test of Creative Thinking were administered. Linear mixed models were run accounting for the random effects of data clusters. Multiple mediation analysis was performed to assess whether motor coordination, executive function and creative thinking mediated any improvement of motor creativity. Results showed that (1) specialist-led enriched PE, compared to generalist-led conventional practice, elicited a more pronounced improvement in all motor creativity dimensions (fluency, flexibility, and originality) independently of baseline levels of motor and cognitive skills and sex; and (2) improved motor creativity was partially mediated by improved motor coordination and, as regards motor flexibility, also by improved inhibitory ability. In conclusion, enriching PE with tailored manipulations of constraints and variability may enhance the ability to create multiple and original task-pertinent movements both directly and through indirect paths. The results are discussed extending to motor creativity a theoretical framework that distinguishes different creativity modes. The intervention may have fostered the generation of creative movements directly through the exposure to variation in constraints, activating the sensorimotor 'flow' mode of creativity that bypasses higher-order cognition, but also indirectly through a systematic and conscious convergence on solutions, activating the 'deliberate' mode of creativity that relies on inhibition to reject common or task-inappropriate movement categories.

The underpinning factors of NBA game-play performance: a systematic review (2001-2020).

OBJECTIVE: Recognizing the high stakes associated with winning and losing in the National Basketball Association (NBA), a deep understanding of the underlying mechanisms of NBA game-play performance would provide substantial benefit to all stakeholders involved with preparing NBA players and teams for competitive success. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this systematic review presents the first attempt to systematically amalgamate and appraise the scientific literature published in the XXI Century, following a constraints-led approach (CLA). In particular, two underpinning factors of NBA game-play performance were investigated: (1) NBA player constraints (internal variables) and (2) NBA contextual constraints (external variables). METHODS: Databases included PubMed (MEDLINE), Web of Science (WOS), ResearchGate, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and the World Association of Basketball Coaches' database (WABC). This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) model and the Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcomes (PICOS) guidelines. RESULTS: Ultimately, 43 articles met the inclusion criteria (n = 43). Promisingly, the vast majority of studies were published in recent years (>2016; n = 28; 65.1%). Topics related to 'contextual constraints' (n = 25; 58.1%) received more attention than topics related to 'player constraints' (n = 18; 41.9%). Even though the importance of longitudinal-interventional approaches to applied sports science is well-documented, descriptive-observational research emerged as the most popular method of choice (n = 27; 62.8%); interventional studies were absent; and near all researchers merely utilized secondary data sources (n = 37; 86.0%). CONCLUSIONS: Taking into account the total body of evidence (2001-2020), NBA practitioners may use this systematic review as a baseline reference to enrich their current knowledge about the nature, demands, and dynamics of the modern-day NBA ecosystem. Finally, adoption of an 'Applied Science Research Framework' is encouraged, fostering clearly outlined project incentives; standardizing taxonomies; sequencing follow-up studies; embracing holistic and cross-disciplinary viewpoints; and integrating longitudinal-interventional projects to increase the reproducibility of their findings.

Teachers' Perceptions of Applying Contemporary Skill Acquisition Approaches in High School Physical Education.

Using contemporary skill acquisition approaches to skill learning appears to be a worthwhile pedagogical option for teachers and coaches in sports and Physical Education (PE). However, PE at the High School level in New Zealand has assessment components that are still underpinned by traditional and outdated skill learning theories. In response to this challenge, two motivated Heads of Department in PE undertook a department-wide professional development initiative to teach the national standard assessment via the use of a contemporary skill acquisition approach, which is student-centred, with an emphasis on enhancing exploratory learning and encouraging autonomy. Each department worked together over a 10-week period with a Higher Education specialist in skill acquisition to design and teach using contemporary skill acquisition approaches. Qualitative data was collected via semi-structured focus group interviews. Insightful data on the influence of teaching using contemporary skill acquisition approaches was acquired from the teachers in the two PE departments. It was found that substantial pedagogical practice changes were achieved by the teachers (e.g., less focus on ideal technique and more on varying the context). They also enjoyed the learning experience that the contemporary skill acquisition approach offered as compared to their previous experience of more traditional teaching approaches, which have a focus on knowledge acquirement with little opportunities for exploratory learning. In addition, from a practical perspective, teachers were observed to demonstrate greater engagement in professional conversations around learning and could see greater relevance in the transfer of learning in the use of contemporary skill acquisition approaches to other teaching contexts.

Different Pitch Configurations Constrain the Playing Tactics and the Creation of Goal Scoring Opportunities during Small Sided Games in Youth Soccer Players.

The aim of this study was to explore the tactical effects of different pitch configurations on the collective playing tactics and the creation of goal scoring opportunities (GSO) during small sided soccer games (SSG) in youth players. A total of 22 players performed a 7 vs. 7 + 1 floater (including goalkeepers) under three different pitch configurations ("Standard", 53 × 38 m; "Long", 63 × 32 m; and "Wide", 43 × 47 m). Eleven tactical indicators related to the development and the end of the team possessions were evaluated by systematic observation. Friedman tests (non-parametric ANOVA for repeated measures) revealed that the long and wide configurations produced more counterattacks (p = 0.0028; ES = 0.3), higher offensive penetration (p = 0.007; ES = 0.41), and more GSO (p = 0.018; ES = 0.30) than the standard format. Regarding the creation of GSO, the wide configuration produced more assists in the form of crosses than the long and standard formats (p = 0.025; ES = 0.31), more utilization of wide subspaces to assist the final player (p = 0.022; ES = 0.35), more number of headers as the final action (p = 0.022; ES = 0.32), and less assists in the form of passes in behind the defense (p = 0.034; ES = 0.28), than the long configuration. The modulation of the pitch configuration during SSG produced different tactical demands, requiring players to implement different tactical solutions to create GSO.

Theory to Practice: Performance Preparation Models in Contemporary High-Level Sport Guided by an Ecological Dynamics Framework.

A fundamental challenge for practitioners in high-level sporting environments concerns how to support athletes in adapting behaviours to solve emergent problems during competitive performance. Guided by an ecological dynamics framework, the design and integration of competitive performance preparation models that place athlete-environment interactions at the heart of the learning process may address this challenge. This ecological conceptualisation of performance preparation signifies a shift in a coach's role; evolving from a consistent solution provider to a learning environment designer who fosters local athlete-environment interactions. However, despite the past decades of research within the ecological dynamics framework developing an evidence-based, theoretical conceptualisation of skill acquisition, expertise and talent development, an ongoing challenge resides within its practical integration into sporting environments. This article provides two case examples in which high-level sports organisations have utilised an ecological dynamics framework for performance preparation in Australian football and Association Football. A unique perspective is offered on experiences of professional sport organisations attempting to challenge traditional ideologies for athlete performance preparation by progressing the theoretical application of ecological dynamics. These case examples intend to promote the sharing of methodological ideas to improve athlete development, affording opportunities for practitioners and applied scientists to accept, reject or adapt the approaches presented here to suit their specific ecosystems.

When and How to Provide Feedback and Instructions to Athletes?-How Sport Psychology and Pedagogy Insights Can Improve Coaching Interventions to Enhance Self-Regulation in Training.

In specialist sports coaching, the type and manner of augmented information that the coach chooses to use in communicating and training with individual athletes can have a significant impact on skill development and performance. Informed by insights from psychology, pedagogy, and sport science, this position paper presents a practitioner-based approach in response to the overarching question: When, why, and how could coaches provide information to athletes during coaching interventions? In an ecological dynamics rationale, practice is seen as a search for functional performance solutions, and augmented feedback is outlined as instructional constraints to guide athletes' self-regulation of action in practice. Using the exemplar of team sports, we present a Skill Training Communication Model for practical application in the context of the role of a specialist coach, using a constraints-led approach (CLA). Further based on principles of a non-linear pedagogy and using the recently introduced Periodization of Skill Training (PoST) framework, the proposed model aims to support practitioners' understanding of the pedagogical constraints of feedback and instruction during practice. In detail, the PoST framework's three skill development and training stages work to (1) directly impact constraint manipulations in practice designs and (2) indirectly affect coaches' choices of external (coach-induced) information. In turn, these guide practitioners on how and when to apply different verbal instruction methodologies and aim to support the design of effective skill learning environments. Finally, several practical guidelines in regard to sports coaches' feedback and instruction processes are proposed.

Sport Practitioners as Sport Ecology Designers: How Ecological Dynamics Has Progressively Changed Perceptions of Skill "Acquisition" in the Sporting Habitat.

Over two decades ago, Davids et al. (1994) and Handford et al. (1997) raised theoretical concerns associated with traditional, reductionist, and mechanistic perspectives of movement coordination and skill acquisition for sport scientists interested in practical applications for training designs. These seminal papers advocated an emerging consciousness grounded in an ecological approach, signaling the need for sports practitioners to appreciate the constraints-led, deeply entangled, and non-linear reciprocity between the organism (performer), task, and environment subsystems. Over two decades later, the areas of skill acquisition, practice and training design, performance analysis and preparation, and talent development in sport science have never been so vibrant in terms of theoretical modeling, knowledge generation and innovation, and technological deployment. Viewed at an ecological level of analysis, the work of sports practitioners has progressively transitioned toward the facilitation of an evolving relationship between an organism (athlete and team) and its environment (sports competition). This commentary sets out to explore how these original ideas from Davids et al. (1994) and Handford et al. (1997) have been advanced through the theoretical lens of ecological dynamics. Concurrently, we provide case study exemplars, from applied practice in high-performance sports organizations, to illustrate how these contemporary perspectives are shaping the work of sports practitioners (sport ecology designers) in practice and in performance preparation.

Training programme designs in professional team sport: An ecological dynamics exemplar.

Ecological dynamics is a contemporary theory of skill acquisition, advocating the mutuality of the performer-environment system, with clear implications for the design of innovative training environments in elite sport. It contends that performance behaviours emerge, and are adapted, by athletes satisfying a confluence of constraints impacting on their structural and functional capacities, the physics of a performance environment and the intended task goals. This framework implicates contemporary models of coaching, training design and sport science support, to stimulate continuous interactions between an individual and performance environment, predicated on representative learning designs (RLD). While theoretical principles of RLD in ecological dynamics are tangible, their practical application in elite and high level (team) sports need verification. Here, we exemplify how data sampled from a high-performance team sport setting could underpin innovative methodologies to support practitioners in designing representative training activities. We highlight how the use of principles grounded within ecological dynamics, along with data from performance analytics, could suggest contemporary models of coaching and preparation for performance in elite sport.

Effects of Physical and Observational Practice on Intermanual Transfer.

Some studies have shown that different coordinate systems in the coding of movement sequences develop during observational and physical practice. According to Newell's (Newell, 1986) constraintsled approach, such contradictions could possibly depend on task characteristics. Accordingly, in the present study, two experiments were designed using a five-segment sequence timing task, in which the instructions on how to perform the sequence were different. The task in the first experiment comprised an alternating shift of fast and slow segments, whereas the second experiment involved an incremental procedure from slow to fast. In these experiments, the intermanual transfer of absolute and relative timing through observational and physical practice was examined. Transfer conditions were such that they required the same motor commands (mirror transfer) or the same visual-spatial coordinates (non-mirror transfer) as those in the practice conditions. The first experiment showed that the transfer to the non-mirror condition for relative timing in the physical group was better than that to the mirror condition, while the transfer was similar for both conditions in the observational group, indicating a different pattern of transfer for relative timing. The relative timing transfer pattern in the second experiment was the same for both experimental groups, such that the physical and observational practice resulted in a similar transfer to both mirror and non-mirror conditions. In both experiments, observational and physical practice participants exhibited similar intramanual transfer of absolute timing under both transfer conditions. Thus, the task itself as a constraint was revealed to be an effective factor influencing the behavioral results derived from physical and observational practice.