'I have to remind myself that everyone's search is different': experiences and outcomes of searching and not searching for donor connections among donor conceived adults.

STUDY QUESTION: What are the experiences and outcomes of donor conceived adults who are actively searching for, open to contact with, or not searching for donor connections? SUMMARY ANSWER: Most participants were actively searching or open to contact, and 67% had found or been found by a connection; finding or not finding experiences were complex. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: There is variation among donor conceived individuals in their interest in donor connections. Individual reasons for searching for connections, and which donor connections are searched for, also vary. Most research studies have focussed on individuals who are actively searching for their donor or donor siblings. Global increases in direct-to-consumer DNA testing and social media participation mean that connections may be made to individuals unaware of their (or their relatives') involvement with donor conception. These social and technological changes have also increased the chances of donor conceived individuals being contacted without expecting or desiring contact. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This study included 88 donor conceived adults, in the UK, who participated in an online multi-method survey between January and August 2022. The survey was designed in consultation with staff and volunteers from the UK's largest community networks for donor conception families (Donor Conception Network, DCN) and donor conceived people (Donor Conceived Register Registrants' Panel, DCRRP). It was piloted by five donor conceived people before its launch. Participants were recruited with assistance from DCN and DCRRP, via social media, university mailing lists, and snowballing. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Participants were mostly female (n = 65, 74%) and sperm donor conceived (n = 79, 90%). Of the 88 participants, 39 (44%) were actively searching for their donor connections, 44 (50%) were open to contact but not actively searching, and 5 (6%) were not searching. Questions were closed (yes/no, rating scale, or multiple choice) or open-ended, addressing experiences of donor conception, searching for connections, and finding or not finding connections. Data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Quantitative results showed no differences between the groups on any demographic variables or in when or how they found out about being donor conceived, and no differences between active searchers and those open to contact in whether they had found their donor connections. Significant differences were found between groups in their interest in their genetic history and the perceived importance of genetics to their sense of identity, with active searchers being more interested and rating this as more important than those open to contact. Methods of searching significantly differed across groups, with active searchers using genetic testing and social media more than those open to contact. 59 participants across all groups (active searchers (n = 29, 74%), open to contact (n = 27, 61%), not open to contact (n = 3, 60%)) had found or been found by a donor connection. Experiences of finding or not finding donor connections among participants actively searching or open to contact were captured by the theme complexities, with six subthemes: uncertainties in searching and relating; searching as open-ended; different donor connections, different experiences; expectations and realities; searching and finding or not finding as catalysing change; and experiences of other donor conceived people. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Most participants were members of relevant community organizations. As is common in research in this area, the sample was mostly female and conceived using donor sperm. Donor conceived people who are disinterested in donor connections may be unlikely to participate in research on this topic. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: The nature and impact of the search process itself should be considered when developing appropriate mechanisms of support for all donor conceived people, regardless of whether they are actively searching for connections or not. Further research should seek to better understand how donor conceived people with varying levels of interest in searching for donor connections differ from one another. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This study was funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council [New Investigator Award ES/S015426/1]. The authors have no competing interests to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: N/A.

Direct-to-consumer DNA testing: the perspectives and experiences of donor conceived young adults in the UK.

RESEARCH QUESTION: What meanings do donor conceived young adults give to direct-to-consumer DNA testing, and how does direct-to-consumer DNA testing relate to their lived experiences? DESIGN: Thirty-three young adults participated in in-depth interviews in November 2020 and September 2021 as part of a study of donor conceived people in the UK that focuses on the period of young adulthood. All participants were aged between 18 and 31 years, had been conceived by sperm donation at a time of legal donor anonymity, and were mainly resident in the UK. Interviews were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Nineteen participants (58%) had used at least one direct-to-consumer DNA test, and 14 (46%) had not. Three participants (9%) had learned about their donor conception inadvertently through a direct-to-consumer DNA test. Twelve participants (36%) had matched with their donor, someone conceived using the same donor, or both. Four related themes that capture participants' perspectives and experiences of direct-to-consumer DNA testing were identified: ruptures, disclosures, webs and temporalities. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to evidence both active interest and disinterest in direct-to-consumer DNA testing among individuals who are donor conceived. The meanings ascribed to, and uses of, direct-to-consumer DNA testing vary significantly among donor conceived young adults. Findings relating to the relationship between 'informal' and 'formal' information systems, and the absence of guidance and support for those using direct-to-consumer DNA tests, should be considered carefully by practitioners, regulatory bodies and policymakers going forward.

Editorial: Health and Well-Being Related to New Family Forms: Perspectives of Adults, Couples, Children, and Professionals.

The aim of this Special Issue is to advance our understanding of the factors that shape the experience, well-being, and mental health of individuals on their path to creating new family forms, including adults and children, and to inform the development of policies and practices designed to promote the thriving of these families. This Special Issue contains a collection of 13 papers that shed light on a range of micro- and macro-level factors contributing to the experience and outcomes of members of new family forms from various countries, such as the UK, Israel, Italy, China, Portugal, the Netherlands, the US, and Russia. The papers extend the current knowledge on the subject from a variety of perspectives, including medical, psychological, social, and digital communications. Their findings can aid professionals supporting members of new family forms to recognize the similarities and challenges they share with their counterparts in traditional heterosexual two-parent families, as well as their unique needs and strengths. They may also encourage policymakers to promote laws and policies designed to address the cultural, legal, and institutional constraints facing these families. Based on the overall picture that emerges from this Special Issue, we suggest valuable avenues for future research.

Sociological Accounts of Donor Siblings' Experiences: Their Importance for Self-Identity and New Kinship Relations.

A fundamental part of the adolescent self is formed through interaction with intimates, usually family members whose roles are reasonably well-defined. However, donor siblings-children who share a sperm donor-lack social scripts for interacting with one another, particularly when they are raised in different households. Moreover, they are often challenged to figure out their relationship to newly discovered genetic relatives. This article examines how donor-conceived teens and young adults navigate relationships with their half siblings and form intimate relationships. Drawing on Garfinkel's concept of indexing, or the use of familiar categories to make sense of new situations, these youth rely upon their personal knowledge of friends and family to figure out what kinds of relationship they can develop with donor siblings. Based on interviews with 62 youth aged 14-28, who had their own social media accounts and who had chosen to establish contact with their donor siblings, the articles discusses the three stages most donor siblings go through-"anticipation", "first contact", and "relationship building"-and the way those stages shape individual identity formation. In the course of the analysis, the article also explores whether interaction with donor siblings affected individual's sense of identity and whether feelings of closeness with donor siblings differ for youth raised as solo children versus those who have siblings with whom they share a household. For those who report feeling close, youth describe how intimacy is sustained and negotiated at a distance. Finally, as much as youth pick and choose intimates from their larger network, the article also argues that their collective identity as related-kin members remains.

Adolescents Conceived through Donor Insemination in Mother-Headed Families: A Qualitative Study of Motivations and Experiences of Contacting and Meeting Same-donor Offspring.

This study interviewed adolescents conceived using sperm donation to examine their experiences of contacting and meeting 'same-donor offspring' (i.e. donor-conceived offspring raised in different families who share the same donor), their motivations for this contact, and how they make meaning of these relationships. This in-depth qualitative study involved semi-structured interviews with 23 young people aged 12-19 years (mean = 14 years). Interviewees were motivated by curiosity about their biological relations and by wanting to extend their family. Contact with same-donor offspring was described as being either normal/neutral or as a unique experience that was integrated into their identity. This study highlights the importance of contact between same donor offspring, particularly during adolescence, a developmental stage associated with identity formation. The findings have important policy implications as they suggest that donor-conceived individuals may benefit from contact with others conceived using the same donor prior to the age of 18 years.