Cellular architecture of evolving neuroinflammatory lesions and multiple sclerosis pathology.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurological disease characterized by multifocal lesions and smoldering pathology. Although single-cell analyses provided insights into cytopathology, evolving cellular processes underlying MS remain poorly understood. We investigated the cellular dynamics of MS by modeling temporal and regional rates of disease progression in mouse experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). By performing single-cell spatial expression profiling using in situ sequencing (ISS), we annotated disease neighborhoods and found centrifugal evolution of active lesions. We demonstrated that disease-associated (DA)-glia arise independently of lesions and are dynamically induced and resolved over the disease course. Single-cell spatial mapping of human archival MS spinal cords confirmed the differential distribution of homeostatic and DA-glia, enabled deconvolution of active and inactive lesions into sub-compartments, and identified new lesion areas. By establishing a spatial resource of mouse and human MS neuropathology at a single-cell resolution, our study unveils the intricate cellular dynamics underlying MS.

Multiple sclerosis: Neuroimmune crosstalk and therapeutic targeting.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and degenerative disease of the central nervous system afflicting nearly three million individuals worldwide. Neuroimmune interactions between glial, neural, and immune cells play important roles in MS pathology and offer potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we review underlying risk factors, mechanisms of MS pathogenesis, available disease modifying therapies, and examine the value of emerging technologies, which may address unmet clinical needs and identify novel therapeutic targets.

Negative allosteric modulation of the glucagon receptor by RAMP2.

Receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs) modulate the activity of many Family B GPCRs. We show that RAMP2 directly interacts with the glucagon receptor (GCGR), a Family B GPCR responsible for blood sugar homeostasis, and broadly inhibits receptor-induced downstream signaling. HDX-MS experiments demonstrate that RAMP2 enhances local flexibility in select locations in and near the receptor extracellular domain (ECD) and in the 6th transmembrane helix, whereas smFRET experiments show that this ECD disorder results in the inhibition of active and intermediate states of the intracellular surface. We determined the cryo-EM structure of the GCGR-Gs complex at 2.9 Å resolution in the presence of RAMP2. RAMP2 apparently does not interact with GCGR in an ordered manner; however, the receptor ECD is indeed largely disordered along with rearrangements of several intracellular hallmarks of activation. Our studies suggest that RAMP2 acts as a negative allosteric modulator of GCGR by enhancing conformational sampling of the ECD.

Structural visualization of the tubulin folding pathway directed by human chaperonin TRiC/CCT.

The ATP-dependent ring-shaped chaperonin TRiC/CCT is essential for cellular proteostasis. To uncover why some eukaryotic proteins can only fold with TRiC assistance, we reconstituted the folding of ß-tubulin using human prefoldin and TRiC. We find unstructured ß-tubulin is delivered by prefoldin to the open TRiC chamber followed by ATP-dependent chamber closure. Cryo-EM resolves four near-atomic-resolution structures containing progressively folded ß-tubulin intermediates within the closed TRiC chamber, culminating in native tubulin. This substrate folding pathway appears closely guided by site-specific interactions with conserved regions in the TRiC chamber. Initial electrostatic interactions between the TRiC interior wall and both the folded tubulin N domain and its C-terminal E-hook tail establish the native substrate topology, thus enabling C-domain folding. Intrinsically disordered CCT C termini within the chamber promote subsequent folding of tubulin's core and middle domains and GTP-binding. Thus, TRiC's chamber provides chemical and topological directives that shape the folding landscape of its obligate substrates.

Structural basis of assembly and torque transmission of the bacterial flagellar motor.

The bacterial flagellar motor is a supramolecular protein machine that drives rotation of the flagellum for motility, which is essential for bacterial survival in different environments and a key determinant of pathogenicity. The detailed structure of the flagellar motor remains unknown. Here we present an atomic-resolution cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the bacterial flagellar motor complexed with the hook, consisting of 175 subunits with a molecular mass of approximately 6.3 MDa. The structure reveals that 10 peptides protruding from the MS ring with the FlgB and FliE subunits mediate torque transmission from the MS ring to the rod and overcome the symmetry mismatch between the rotational and helical structures in the motor. The LP ring contacts the distal rod and applies electrostatic forces to support its rotation and torque transmission to the hook. This work provides detailed molecular insights into the structure, assembly, and torque transmission mechanisms of the flagellar motor.

Dual proteome-scale networks reveal cell-specific remodeling of the human interactome.

Thousands of interactions assemble proteins into modules that impart spatial and functional organization to the cellular proteome. Through affinity-purification mass spectrometry, we have created two proteome-scale, cell-line-specific interaction networks. The first, BioPlex 3.0, results from affinity purification of 10,128 human proteins-half the proteome-in 293T cells and includes 118,162 interactions among 14,586 proteins. The second results from 5,522 immunoprecipitations in HCT116 cells. These networks model the interactome whose structure encodes protein function, localization, and complex membership. Comparison across cell lines validates thousands of interactions and reveals extensive customization. Whereas shared interactions reside in core complexes and involve essential proteins, cell-specific interactions link these complexes, "rewiring" subnetworks within each cell's interactome. Interactions covary among proteins of shared function as the proteome remodels to produce each cell's phenotype. Viewable interactively online through BioPlexExplorer, these networks define principles of proteome organization and enable unknown protein characterization.

Discovery and functional interrogation of SARS-CoV-2 RNA-host protein interactions.

SARS-CoV-2 is the cause of a pandemic with growing global mortality. Using comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins by mass spectrometry (ChIRP-MS), we identified 309 host proteins that bind the SARS-CoV-2 RNA during active infection. Integration of this data with ChIRP-MS data from three other RNA viruses defined viral specificity of RNA-host protein interactions. Targeted CRISPR screens revealed that the majority of functional RNA-binding proteins protect the host from virus-induced cell death, and comparative CRISPR screens across seven RNA viruses revealed shared and SARS-specific antiviral factors. Finally, by combining the RNA-centric approach and functional CRISPR screens, we demonstrated a physical and functional connection between SARS-CoV-2 and mitochondria, highlighting this organelle as a general platform for antiviral activity. Altogether, these data provide a comprehensive catalog of functional SARS-CoV-2 RNA-host protein interactions, which may inform studies to understand the host-virus interface and nominate host pathways that could be targeted for therapeutic benefit.

A Pan-plant Protein Complex Map Reveals Deep Conservation and Novel Assemblies.

Plants are foundational for global ecological and economic systems, but most plant proteins remain uncharacterized. Protein interaction networks often suggest protein functions and open new avenues to characterize genes and proteins. We therefore systematically determined protein complexes from 13 plant species of scientific and agricultural importance, greatly expanding the known repertoire of stable protein complexes in plants. By using co-fractionation mass spectrometry, we recovered known complexes, confirmed complexes predicted to occur in plants, and identified previously unknown interactions conserved over 1.1 billion years of green plant evolution. Several novel complexes are involved in vernalization and pathogen defense, traits critical for agriculture. We also observed plant analogs of animal complexes with distinct molecular assemblies, including a megadalton-scale tRNA multi-synthetase complex. The resulting map offers a cross-species view of conserved, stable protein assemblies shared across plant cells and provides a mechanistic, biochemical framework for interpreting plant genetics and mutant phenotypes.

Maturation Kinetics of a Multiprotein Complex Revealed by Metabolic Labeling.

All proteins interact with other cellular components to fulfill their function. While tremendous progress has been made in the identification of protein complexes, their assembly and dynamics remain difficult to characterize. Here, we present a high-throughput strategy to analyze the native assembly kinetics of protein complexes. We apply our approach to characterize the co-assembly for 320 pairs of nucleoporins (NUPs) constituting the ≈50 MDa nuclear pore complex (NPC) in yeast. Some NUPs co-assemble fast via rapid exchange whereas others require lengthy maturation steps. This reveals a hierarchical principle of NPC biogenesis where individual subcomplexes form on a minute timescale and then co-assemble from center to periphery in a ∼1 h-long maturation process. Intriguingly, the NUP Mlp1 stands out as joining very late and associating preferentially with aged NPCs. Our approach is readily applicable beyond the NPC, making it possible to analyze the intracellular dynamics of a variety of multiprotein assemblies.

Membrane Protein-Lipid Interactions Probed Using Mass Spectrometry.

Membrane proteins that exist in lipid bilayers are not isolated molecular entities. The lipid molecules that surround them play crucial roles in maintaining their full structural and functional integrity. Research directed at investigating these critical lipid-protein interactions is developing rapidly. Advancements in both instrumentation and software, as well as in key biophysical and biochemical techniques, are accelerating the field. In this review, we provide a brief outline of structural techniques used to probe protein-lipid interactions and focus on the molecular aspects of these interactions obtained from native mass spectrometry (native MS). We highlight examples in which lipids have been shown to modulate membrane protein structure and show how native MS has emerged as a complementary technique to X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy. We conclude with a short perspective on future developments that aim to better understand protein-lipid interactions in the native environment.

Biophysical Techniques in Structural Biology.

Over the past six decades, steadily increasing progress in the application of the principles and techniques of the physical sciences to the study of biological systems has led to remarkable insights into the molecular basis of life. Of particular significance has been the way in which the determination of the structures and dynamical properties of proteins and nucleic acids has so often led directly to a profound understanding of the nature and mechanism of their functional roles. The increasing number and power of experimental and theoretical techniques that can be applied successfully to living systems is now ushering in a new era of structural biology that is leading to fundamentally new information about the maintenance of health, the origins of disease, and the development of effective strategies for therapeutic intervention. This article provides a brief overview of some of the most powerful biophysical methods in use today, along with references that provide more detailed information about recent applications of each of them. In addition, this article acts as an introduction to four authoritative reviews in this volume. The first shows the ways that a multiplicity of biophysical methods can be combined with computational techniques to define the architectures of complex biological systems, such as those involving weak interactions within ensembles of molecular components. The second illustrates one aspect of this general approach by describing how recent advances in mass spectrometry, particularly in combination with other techniques, can generate fundamentally new insights into the properties of membrane proteins and their functional interactions with lipid molecules. The third reviewdemonstrates the increasing power of rapidly evolving diffraction techniques, employing the very short bursts of X-rays of extremely high intensity that are now accessible as a result of the construction of free-electron lasers, in particular to carry out time-resolved studies of biochemical reactions. The fourth describes in detail the application of such approaches to probe the mechanism of the light-induced changes associated with bacteriorhodopsin's ability to convert light energy into chemical energy.

The Chaperonin TRiC/CCT Associates with Prefoldin through a Conserved Electrostatic Interface Essential for Cellular Proteostasis.

Maintaining proteostasis in eukaryotic protein folding involves cooperation of distinct chaperone systems. To understand how the essential ring-shaped chaperonin TRiC/CCT cooperates with the chaperone prefoldin/GIMc (PFD), we integrate cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM), crosslinking-mass-spectrometry and biochemical and cellular approaches to elucidate the structural and functional interplay between TRiC/CCT and PFD. We find these hetero-oligomeric chaperones associate in a defined architecture, through a conserved interface of electrostatic contacts that serves as a pivot point for a TRiC-PFD conformational cycle. PFD alternates between an open "latched" conformation and a closed "engaged" conformation that aligns the PFD-TRiC substrate binding chambers. PFD can act after TRiC bound its substrates to enhance the rate and yield of the folding reaction, suppressing non-productive reaction cycles. Disrupting the TRiC-PFD interaction in vivo is strongly deleterious, leading to accumulation of amyloid aggregates. The supra-chaperone assembly formed by PFD and TRiC is essential to prevent toxic conformations and ensure effective cellular proteostasis.

A White-Box Machine Learning Approach for Revealing Antibiotic Mechanisms of Action.

Current machine learning techniques enable robust association of biological signals with measured phenotypes, but these approaches are incapable of identifying causal relationships. Here, we develop an integrated "white-box" biochemical screening, network modeling, and machine learning approach for revealing causal mechanisms and apply this approach to understanding antibiotic efficacy. We counter-screen diverse metabolites against bactericidal antibiotics in Escherichia coli and simulate their corresponding metabolic states using a genome-scale metabolic network model. Regression of the measured screening data on model simulations reveals that purine biosynthesis participates in antibiotic lethality, which we validate experimentally. We show that antibiotic-induced adenine limitation increases ATP demand, which elevates central carbon metabolism activity and oxygen consumption, enhancing the killing effects of antibiotics. This work demonstrates how prospective network modeling can couple with machine learning to identify complex causal mechanisms underlying drug efficacy.

Recirculating Intestinal IgA-Producing Cells Regulate Neuroinflammation via IL-10.

Plasma cells (PC) are found in the CNS of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, yet their source and role in MS remains unclear. We find that some PC in the CNS of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) originate in the gut and produce immunoglobulin A (IgA). Moreover, we show that IgA+ PC are dramatically reduced in the gut during EAE, and likewise, a reduction in IgA-bound fecal bacteria is seen in MS patients during disease relapse. Removal of plasmablast (PB) plus PC resulted in exacerbated EAE that was normalized by the introduction of gut-derived IgA+ PC. Furthermore, mice with an over-abundance of IgA+ PB and/or PC were specifically resistant to the effector stage of EAE, and expression of interleukin (IL)-10 by PB plus PC was necessary and sufficient to confer resistance. Our data show that IgA+ PB and/or PC mobilized from the gut play an unexpected role in suppressing neuroinflammation.

Fate Mapping via Ms4a3-Expression History Traces Monocyte-Derived Cells.

Most tissue-resident macrophage (RTM) populations are seeded by waves of embryonic hematopoiesis and are self-maintained independently of a bone marrow contribution during adulthood. A proportion of RTMs, however, is constantly replaced by blood monocytes, and their functions compared to embryonic RTMs remain unclear. The kinetics and extent of the contribution of circulating monocytes to RTM replacement during homeostasis, inflammation, and disease are highly debated. Here, we identified Ms4a3 as a specific gene expressed by granulocyte-monocyte progenitors (GMPs) and subsequently generated Ms4a3TdT reporter, Ms4a3Cre, and Ms4a3CreERT2 fate-mapping models. These models traced efficiently monocytes and granulocytes, but no lymphocytes or tissue dendritic cells. Using these models, we precisely quantified the contribution of monocytes to the RTM pool during homeostasis and inflammation. The unambiguous identification of monocyte-derived cells will permit future studies of their function under any condition.

A Class of Environmental and Endogenous Toxins Induces BRCA2 Haploinsufficiency and Genome Instability.

Mutations truncating a single copy of the tumor suppressor, BRCA2, cause cancer susceptibility. In cells bearing such heterozygous mutations, we find that a cellular metabolite and ubiquitous environmental toxin, formaldehyde, stalls and destabilizes DNA replication forks, engendering structural chromosomal aberrations. Formaldehyde selectively depletes BRCA2 via proteasomal degradation, a mechanism of toxicity that affects very few additional cellular proteins. Heterozygous BRCA2 truncations, by lowering pre-existing BRCA2 expression, sensitize to BRCA2 haploinsufficiency induced by transient exposure to natural concentrations of formaldehyde. Acetaldehyde, an alcohol catabolite detoxified by ALDH2, precipitates similar effects. Ribonuclease H1 ameliorates replication fork instability and chromosomal aberrations provoked by aldehyde-induced BRCA2 haploinsufficiency, suggesting that BRCA2 inactivation triggers spontaneous mutagenesis during DNA replication via aberrant RNA-DNA hybrids (R-loops). These findings suggest a model wherein carcinogenesis in BRCA2 mutation carriers can be incited by compounds found pervasively in the environment and generated endogenously in certain tissues with implications for public health.

A CPF-like phosphatase module links transcription termination to chromatin silencing.

The interconnections between co-transcriptional regulation, chromatin environment, and transcriptional output remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate the mechanism underlying RNA 3' processing-mediated Polycomb silencing of Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). We show a requirement for ANTHESIS PROMOTING FACTOR 1 (APRF1), a homolog of yeast Swd2 and human WDR82, known to regulate RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) during transcription termination. APRF1 interacts with TYPE ONE SERINE/THREONINE PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE 4 (TOPP4) (yeast Glc7/human PP1) and LUMINIDEPENDENS (LD), the latter showing structural features found in Ref2/PNUTS, all components of the yeast and human phosphatase module of the CPF 3' end-processing machinery. LD has been shown to co-associate in vivo with the histone H3 K4 demethylase FLOWERING LOCUS D (FLD). This work shows how the APRF1/LD-mediated polyadenylation/termination process influences subsequent rounds of transcription by changing the local chromatin environment at FLC.

A mutation in the low-complexity domain of splicing factor hnRNPA1 linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disrupts distinct neuronal RNA splicing networks.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease characterized by loss of motor neurons. Human genetic studies have linked mutations in RNA-binding proteins as causative for this disease. The hnRNPA1 protein, a known pre-mRNA splicing factor, is mutated in some ALS patients. Here, two human cell models were generated to investigate how a mutation in the C-terminal low-complexity domain (LCD) of hnRNPA1 can cause splicing changes of thousands of transcripts that collectively are linked to the DNA damage response, cilium organization, and translation. We show that the hnRNPA1 D262V mutant protein binds to new binding sites on differentially spliced transcripts from genes that are linked to ALS. We demonstrate that this ALS-linked hnRNPA1 mutation alters normal RNA-dependent protein-protein interactions. Furthermore, cells expressing this hnRNPA1 mutant exhibit a cell aggregation phenotype, markedly reduced growth rates, changes in stress granule kinetics, and aberrant growth of neuronal processes. This study provides insight into how a single amino acid mutation in a splicing factor can alter RNA splicing networks of genes linked to ALS.

L-Arginine Modulates T Cell Metabolism and Enhances Survival and Anti-tumor Activity.

Metabolic activity is intimately linked to T cell fate and function. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, we generated dynamic metabolome and proteome profiles of human primary naive T cells following activation. We discovered critical changes in the arginine metabolism that led to a drop in intracellular L-arginine concentration. Elevating L-arginine levels induced global metabolic changes including a shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation in activated T cells and promoted the generation of central memory-like cells endowed with higher survival capacity and, in a mouse model, anti-tumor activity. Proteome-wide probing of structural alterations, validated by the analysis of knockout T cell clones, identified three transcriptional regulators (BAZ1B, PSIP1, and TSN) that sensed L-arginine levels and promoted T cell survival. Thus, intracellular L-arginine concentrations directly impact the metabolic fitness and survival capacity of T cells that are crucial for anti-tumor responses.

The solute carrier SPNS2 recruits PI(4,5)P2 to synergistically regulate transport of sphingosine-1-phosphate.

Solute carrier spinster homolog 2 (SPNS2), one of only four known major facilitator superfamily (MFS) lysolipid transporters in humans, exports sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) across cell membranes. Here, we explore the synergistic effects of lipid binding and conformational dynamics on SPNS2's transport mechanism. Using mass spectrometry, we discovered that SPNS2 interacts preferentially with PI(4,5)P2. Together with functional studies and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we identified potential PI(4,5)P2 binding sites. Mutagenesis of proposed lipid binding sites and inhibition of PI(4,5)P2 synthesis reduce S1P transport, whereas the absence of the N terminus renders the transporter essentially inactive. Probing the conformational dynamics of SPNS2, we show how synergistic binding of PI(4,5)P2 and S1P facilitates transport, increases dynamics of the extracellular gate, and stabilizes the intracellular gate. Given that SPNS2 transports a key signaling lipid, our results have implications for therapeutic targeting and also illustrate a regulatory mechanism for MFS transporters.