Parenting style and child mental health at preschool age: evidence from rural China.

BACKGROUND: Mental health problems among children at preschool age are a common issue across the world. As shown in literature, a caregiver's parenting style can play a critical role in child development. This study aims to examine the associations between a caregiver's parenting style and the mental health problems (or not) of their child when he/she is at preschool age in rural China. METHODS: Participants were children, aged 49 to 65 months, and their primary caregivers. The primary caregivers of the sample children completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, Short Version, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and a questionnaire that elicited their socio-demographic characteristics. The level of cognitive development of each sample child was assessed using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition. Pearson correlation analysis, linear regression analysis, and multivariable regression analysis were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The prevalence of mental health problems among sample children at preschool age was high (31.6%). If a caregiver practices an authoritative parenting style, it was found to be negatively associated with the mental health problems of their child. In contrast, a caregiver's authoritarian parenting style was positively associated with the mental health problems of their child. Compared to those in a subgroup of primary caregivers that used a combination of low authoritative and low authoritarian parenting style, primary caregivers that used a combination of high authoritarian and low authoritative or a combination of high authoritative and high authoritarian were found to have positive association with child health problems. A number of demographic characteristics were found to be associated with the adoption of different parenting styles. CONCLUSION: Different parenting styles (including authoritative, authoritarian, and combination of authoritative and authoritarian) of the sample caregivers had different associations with the mental health problems of the sample children. Parenting programs that aim to improve the parenting styles (favoring authoritative parenting styles) should be promoted in an effort to improve the status of child mental health in rural China.

Children's screen time and psychosocial symptoms at 5 years of age - the role of parental factors.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Electronic media (e-media) has become a universal part of young children's daily lives. Previous studies have found an association between increased screen time and children's psychosocial symptoms. We investigated whether parents' psychological distress and parenting style dimensions explain the association between children's screen time and psychosocial symptoms. Moreover, we investigated whether parents' mental well-being and parenting style dimensions moderate this association. METHODS: We used data from the Finnish CHILD-SLEEP birth cohort study. Parents and the child were assessed when the child was 5 years old (N = 671). The measure of screen time included program viewing from TV and other devices. Child's psychosocial problems and parents' depression, stress and parenting style dimensions were assessed by self-reports. RESULTS: A high level of screen time in children was associated with attention and concentration difficulties, hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms as well as internalizing and externalizing symptoms among 5-year-olds. For the most part, the associations remained significant despite controlling for parents' mental health, parenting style dimensions and multiple background factors, especially associations relating to attention and concentration difficulties and hyperactivity symptoms were robust. Maternal stress and depression moderated the association between children's screen time and psychosocial symptoms, indicating a more pronounced association among stressed or depressed mothers. CONCLUSION: There is an independent association between children's screen time and psychosocial symptoms which is especially pronounced among those children whose mothers had poorer mental well-being. In clinical practice, the length of screen time should be inquired already at a young age and parents should be offered guidance to reduce the possible ill effects of excessive screen time, as well as help with their own mental health problems.

The temporal stability of maternal parenting style and child feeding practices: A six-wave longitudinal study.

Although parenting styles and child feeding practices are conceptualized as distal, static predictors of child eating and weight outcomes, few studies have examined the temporal stability (i.e., change over time) of these parenting measures. Also, parental characteristics, such as mental health or socio-demographics, may make it more or less difficult to sustain consistent parenting behavior. This study examined the temporal stability of parenting styles and child feeding practices and the association between temporal stability indices with maternal sociodemographic and mental health characteristics. The analytic sample included 161 ethnically diverse mothers enrolled in a six-wave bi-annual longitudinal study. During each wave, mothers reported on their parenting styles and child feeding practices using validated self-report questionnaires. Temporal stability indices for parenting styles were moderate for authoritative (ICC = 0.57) and authoritarian (ICC = 0.70) styles, yet high for permissive (ICC = 0.78) styles. Temporal stability scores for child feeding practices were low for discipline (ICC = 0.33), limit setting (ICC = 0.33), monitoring (ICC = 0.36), and pressure to eat (ICC = 0.34); however, restriction (ICC = 0.53) and role modeling of healthy eating were moderate (ICC = 0.73). Greater income and education status were positively associated with stability in authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, as well as with limit setting, monitoring, role modeling of healthy eating, and pressure to eat feeding practices. Higher anxiety and depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem were negatively associated with permissive parenting styles and role modeling of healthy eating. Findings show that maternal parenting styles and child feeding practices fluctuate over time, and sociodemographic and mental health characteristics are related to stability of some of these parenting styles and behaviors.

The relation between psychosocial symptoms and parenting styles in hospitalized children.

OBJECTIVE: Hospitalization is a serious experience affecting emotional, physical and developmental needs of the children. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between psychosocial symptoms and parenting styles in hospitalized children. DESIGN AND METHODS: The sample of this cross-sectional descriptive study consisted of parents of hospitalized children between the ages of 6-12 years. The data collection tools included 'Scale for Diagnosis of Psychosocial Symptom for Inpatient children (SDPSIC)' and 'Multidimensional Parenting Assessment Scale (MAPS)'. RESULTS: The highest scores for psychosocial symptoms belonged to anxiety (8.64 ± 2.03) and regressive behaviours (3.89 ± 1.59). The highest scores for parenting styles belonged to warmth (13.30 ± 1.98) and supportiveness (12.69 ± 2.33). Parenting styles were predictore of the hospitalized child's psychosocial symptoms and explained 23% of the variance in psychosocial symptoms. While a positive relation existed between lax control, hostility, physical control parenting styles and psychosocial symptoms like anxiety, regressive behaviours, communication difficulty; a negative relation occured between warmth, positive reinforcement styles and anger-aggression. CONCLUSIONS: Focusing to the processes associating parenting styles and parenting practices with child outcomes will make the understanding of psychosocial symptoms of the child in hospitalization process easier. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Identification of psychosocial symptoms-related risk factors in hospitalized children will contribute to compliance of the child to disease and treatment as well.

Association between Parenting Styles and Adolescents' Mental Disorders: Findings among Pre-University Students.

Background: Existing research indicated a high prevalence of mental health issues among adolescents. Gender and parenting styles are two factors that may influence adolescents' mental health. Nonetheless, most published studies focused on either secondary school or university students. In contrast, there is a dearth of similar research involving pre-university students. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of mental disorders among pre-university students and their association with parenting styles. Methods: A cross-sectional study via online questionnaire survey was conducted among students from a pre-university college on the East Coast of Malaysia. Convenience sampling was used to recruit the participants. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: i) sociodemographic data, ii) the Parental Authority Questionnaire and Depression, and iii) the Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). An online invitation to answer the questionnaire was done via the Student Representative Council (SRC). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Pearson's chi-square test. Results: A total of 431 participants responded to the online survey. The prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress was 49.0% (n = 210), 68.0% (n = 293) and 37.6% (n = 162), respectively. In addition, father's educational level (χ2 = 10.332, P = 0.001) and the authoritarian parenting style (χ2 = 10.099, P = 0.006) were significantly associated with mental health disorders among adolescents. Conclusion: The prevalence of mental disorders among pre-university students is relatively high. Pre-university admission mental health screening is vital for early detection and intervention of mental disorders among this vulnerable group. Further research is imperative to establish a comprehensive plan of action that targets parental involvement in managing adolescent mental health disorders.

Perceived parenting styles and incidence of major depressive disorder: results from a 6985 freshmen cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Even though a fair amount of studies focus on depression among college students, the effect of perceived parenting styles on the incidence of major depressive disorder (MDD) among representative freshmen in Chinese context is scarcely studied. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of parenting styles on MDD in Chinese freshmen. METHODS: A total of 9,928 Chinese freshmen were recruited in 2018. 6985 valid questionnaires were collected at one-year follow-up. Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0 (CIDI-3.0) was used for the diagnosis of MDD. Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran (EMBU) questionnaire and Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) were used to assess parenting styles and baseline depressive symptoms, respectively. The associations between parenting styles and MDD incidence was analyzed with logistic regression. RESULTS: The incidence of MDD in freshmen was 2.23% (95%CI: 1.91-2.60%). Maternal overprotection (OR = 1.03, 95%CI: 1.01-1.05) and disharmony relationship between parents (OR = 2.35, 95% CI: 1.42-3.89) increased the risk of new-onset MDD in freshmen, respectively. Mild depressive symptoms (OR = 2.06, 95%CI: 1.06-4.02), moderate (OR = 4.64, 95%CI: 2.55-8.44) and severe depressive symptoms (OR = 7.46, 95%CI: 2.71-20.52) at baseline increased the risk of new-onset MDD. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal overprotection, disharmony relationship between parents and baseline depressive symptoms are risk factors for new-onset MDD in Chinese freshmen.

Universality without uniformity - infants' reactions to unresponsive partners in urban Germany and rural Ecuador.

Previous studies based on non-WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) samples provide initial evidence that the still-face effect is universal. Based on the assumption that - independent of their cultural niches - infants share some fundamental expectations of social interactions, we put forth the assumption that a universal response exists for when a social interaction is interrupted. At the same time, we hypothesized that the size of the effect depends on the typicality of the interaction that precedes the adult partners' interruption. To test these hypotheses, we conducted the Still-Face Paradigm (SFP) with infants (3- and 4.5-month-olds) from two cultural milieus, namely Münster (urban Germany) and the Kichwa ethnic group from the northern Andes region (rural Ecuador), as these contexts presumably offer different ways of construing the self that are associated with different parenting styles, namely distal and proximal parenting. Furthermore, we developed a paradigm that comes much closer to the average expected environment of Kichwa infants, the "No-Touch Paradigm" (NTP). Overall, the results support our initial hypothesis that the still-face effect is universal. Moreover, infants from both cultural milieus responded to the no-touch condition with a change in negative affect. At the same time, some of the infants' responses were accentuated in a culture-specific way: Kichwa infants had a stronger response to an interruption of proximal interaction patterns during the NTP. While our findings underline infants' universal predisposition for face-to-face interaction, they also suggest that cultural differences in internalized interactions do influence infant behavior and experience and, in turn, development.

Parental Worry About COVID-19 in Preschool Children's Mothers During the Pandemic Waves: The Role of Maternal Negative Feelings and Parenting Styles.

This cross-sectional study explores the relationship between maternal feelings, maternal parenting styles, and mothers' worry about COVID-19's detrimental consequences on preschool children's health and well-being. The study is among the first to concentrate on this reference specific group, whose characteristics might be particularly vulnerable to COVID-19's adversities. One hundred and four mothers of at least one preschool-age child completed an online questionnaire battery, which included the Parental Feelings Inventory, the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ), and the parental worry about COVID-19 scale. Negative maternal feelings (i.e., anger, anxiety/sadness) were associated with authoritarian and indulgent parenting practices, especially verbal hostility, while maternal happiness was associated with more authoritative practices, especially warmth and support. The hierarchical multiple regression model explained about 42% of variance of the overall maternal worry about COVID-19 from maternal negative feelings and parenting styles, with maternal authoritative parenting and maternal anxiety/sadness as the significant predictors that uniquely explain maternal worry about COVID-19. These results are discussed in terms of positive and negative maternal worry, which partially reflect the differences between overprotective and authoritative parenting in early childhood.

Psychosocial factors as predictors of aggressive behaviors among primary school learners.

The study investigated psychosocial factors as predictors of aggressive behaviors among primary school learners in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The study used a survey research design. All public primary school learners in Ekiti State formed the target population. A sample size of one thousand three hundred and fifty (1350) respondents was selected using a multistage sampling procedure, consisting of 641 males (47.5%) and 709 females (52.5%), ages 9-13 years, who participated in the study. A self-report instrument tagged "Learners' Aggressive Behaviours Questionnaire" (α indexes of .81, .70, .77, and .84 for the four components respectively) was used for data collection. The data were analyzed using multiple regression analysis at a 5% level of significance. The empirical findings revealed that parenting styles, peer influence, and self-control significantly predicted learners' aggressive behavior. Recommendations for curbing aggressive behavior among learners were highlighted.

Fathering styles in a traditional culture and its association with marital relationship: A latent profile analysis with a nationally representative sample.

This study had two main objectives. The first goal was to examine fathers' parenting styles in a society with traditional patriarchal values. The second goal was to understand the extent to which marital relationship variables (i.e., marital satisfaction and spousal support) are related with the identified fathering profiles. The theoretical and empirical underpinnings of the "parenting styles" literature that form the foundation of the research on parent-child dynamics are still mainly based on data collected only from mothers. This weakness of the literature on fathering typologies is further accompanied by the scarcity of data on fathers' parenting practices from non-Western contexts. To achieve the study aims, a latent profile analysis based on warmth and control dimensions of parenting was performed using a nationally representative sample of 1070 urban fathers in Turkey. Using scores on six parenting behavior variables (i.e., warmth, punishment, inductive reasoning, positive parenting, discipline and teaching responsibilities, time and talking together), results revealed four fathering profiles: "authoritative" (30%), "average" (45%), "uninvolved" (16%), and "disciplining-distant" (8%). Furthermore, the results showed that the fathering profiles significantly differed from each other on the marital satisfaction and spousal support scores. Results highlight the importance of investigating fathering behaviors and their predictors in different cultures.

European gay fathers via surrogacy: Parenting, social support, anti-gay microaggressions, and child behavior problems.

The present study investigated child behavior problems, parenting styles, coparenting, and couple relationship satisfaction in 67 European gay father families via surrogacy and 67 European heterosexual parent families via unassisted conception, all with children aged 1.5-10 years (M = 3.57 years, SD = 2.09). The two family groups were matched for child age and gender. In the gay father group only, the associations between family anti-gay microaggressions, family/friend support, and other main variables also were explored. Children of gay fathers had fewer externalizing and internalizing problems compared to children of heterosexual parents. Also, gay fathers reported more effective parenting styles, greater coparenting quality, and higher couple relationship satisfaction compared to heterosexual parents. Overall, child externalizing problems (i.e., aggression, rule-breaking) and internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression) were more strongly associated with being raised in a heterosexual parent family, more authoritarian parenting, and lower positive coparenting. Specific to the gay father sample, anti-gay microaggressions experienced by family members were associated with more child internalizing problems, lower positive coparenting, and lower social support from family and friends. These results refute concerns about possible detrimental effects on child development of surrogacy conception or of being raised by gay fathers. The results further suggest that family therapists treating child behavior problems should focus mainly on improving the coparenting relationship, reducing authoritarian/punitive parenting styles, and (for gay father families specifically) coping with anti-gay microaggressions and lack of social support outside the nuclear family.

Bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese preschool children: the Shenzhen Longhua Child Cohort Study.

The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese children attending preschools were rarely discussed. A study covering 171 preschools in Longhua District of Shenzhen, China was conducted among children when they first attended preschools. Parents of children reported the self-perceived parenting styles and their children's conduct problems using validated questionnaires. The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in children were assessed using multivariate linear or logistic regressions in both cross-sectional and cohort settings. In cross-sectional settings, the bidirectional associations were present in all dimensions of parenting styles with children's conduct problems. After 1.01 years of follow-up, increases in parenting dimensions of rejection, control attempts, and favoring subject were significantly associated with children's conduct problems at follow-up, while increases in emotional warmth of parents significantly reduced such risk. In addition, parents of children who had conduct problems at baseline but regressed to normal at follow-up showed decreased scores in negative parenting dimensions. In contrast, among children who developed conduct problems during the study period, the scores of rejection and favoring subject in their parents have increased significantly, while the scores of emotional warmth have decreased. Parent-to-child effect was similar between fathers and mothers, while child-to-parent effect was stronger in fathers than that in mothers. In order to stop the negative feedback loop between poor parenting styles and children's conduct problems, our study underscored the importance of intervention not only in parents but also in their children.

The longitudinal links between marital conflict and Chinese children's internalizing problems in mainland China: Mediating role of maternal parenting styles.

The present study explored the role of parenting styles as mediating mechanisms in the link between marital conflict and Chinese children's internalizing problems. Participants were N = 1269 families (mothers, fathers, and children) from Shanghai, P. R. China. Multisource assessments were employed at three time points. Mothers and fathers reported their marital conflict and parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian) and teachers and children reported on children's internalizing problems. Results from the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) showed significant actor and partner effects for associations between marital conflict and parenting styles. After controlling for internalizing problems at Time 1, only maternal authoritarian parenting continued to mediate the relations between mothers' reported marital conflict and change in children's internalizing problems over time. This research provides valuable information about how important aspects of parenting influence the relations between marital conflict and internalizing problems among Chinese children.

The Effect of CRHBP rs10062367 Polymorphism and Parenting Styles on Internalizing Problems in Preschoolers: The Moderating Effect of Sensory Processing Sensitivity.

The present study aimed to examine how CRHBP rs10062367 polymorphism interacted with parenting styles and sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) to impact on preschoolers' internalizing problems. A total of 446 preschoolers (Mage = 4.55, SD = 1.07) participated in the study and their saliva were extracted to genotype the CRHBP rs10062367 polymorphism, and their parents were invited to complete a battery of questionnaires to assess parenting styles, preschoolers' SPS, and internalizing problems. Results indicated that high SPS preschoolers with A allele exhibited fewer internalizing problems under the condition of positive parenting while they exhibited more internalizing problems under the condition of negative parenting. The findings provide support for the Differential Susceptibility Model/Biological Sensitivity to Context Theory that A allele of rs10062367 and high SPS might be the "susceptibility markers" of children to environments.

Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent-Child Negotiation for Children's Independent Mobility: 'I Always Feel Safer With My Parents' to 'Boom! Bust Down Those Walls!'

Autonomy - acting volitionally with a sense of choice - is a crucial right for children. Given parents' pivotal position in their child's autonomy development, we examined how parental autonomy support and children's need for autonomy were negotiated and manifested in the context of children's independent mobility - children's ability to play, walk or cycle unsupervised. We interviewed 105 Canadian children between 10 and 13-years-old and their parents (n = 135) to examine child-parents' negotiation patterns as to children's independent mobility. Four patterns emerged, varying on parental autonomy support and children's need/motivation for independent mobility: (1) child/parent dyad wants to increase independent mobility; (2) child only wants to increase independent mobility while parents do not; (3) child does not want to increase independent mobility while parents do; and (4) child/parent dyad does not want to increase independent mobility. Findings illuminate the importance of recognizing children as active and capable agents of change.

Permissive parenting mediates parental stress and child emotions in families of children with Down syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Parenting styles mediate parental stress and child emotions in families of typically developing (TD) children. Our main aim was to study these relations in families of children with Down syndrome (DS), who in past research reported increased parental stress and permissive parenting. METHOD: Our sample included 100 parents of children with DS and 72 parents of TD children age 4-12 years. Parents completed online surveys of parental adjustment and emotion regulation (ER), parenting styles, and child ER and mood. RESULTS: Parents of children with DS reported more distress and permissive parenting than parents of TD children. Within parents of children with DS, there was an indirect effect of parental stress on child emotions through permissive parenting. This effect was partly conditional upon parental ER and positive adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: Results have implications for distressed parents of children with DS whose families may benefit from improved coping strategies and increased support.

Negative parenting styles and social adjustment of university students: a moderated chain mediation model.

This study aimed to explore the relationship between parenting styles and the social adjustment of university students as well as the mediating effects of attachment avoidance and friendship quality. We further examined the moderating role of gender. This study used convenience sampling to recruit 501 Chinese university students to complete the Chinese version of the Negative Parenting subscale of EMBU, Attachment Avoidance Scale, Friendship Quality Questionnaire, and Social Adjustment Scale. SPSS 24.0 and the Process 3.5 macro program were used to carry out descriptive statistical and correlation analyses and mediating effect and moderated chain-mediating effect tests on the data. The analyses revealed that negative parenting styles significantly negatively predicted social adjustment in university students. Attachment avoidance mediated the relationship between negative parenting styles and social adjustment in university students, and friendship quality mediated the relationship between negative parenting styles and social adjustment in university students. Attachment avoidance and friendship quality played a chain-mediating role in the relationship between negative parenting styles and university students' social adjustment. Gender moderated the effect of negative parenting style on friendship quality among university students. These results show how negative parenting styles affect college students' social adjustment and its underlying mechanisms in the context of China's collectivist culture and high power distance and further reveal the gender differences involved, providing insights to better understand the factors influencing college students' social adjustment.

The association of different parenting styles among depressed parents and their offspring's depression and anxiety: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Parenting styles play a critical role in children's development, especially for those in families with a depressed parent. To date, no study has explored whether youth perceptions of parenting style are heterogeneous in families with a depressed parent or whether heterogeneous parenting styles are associated with children's internalizing symptoms. METHODS: Participants were children aged 8-16 years who had a parent with major depressive disorder; they were enrolled through their parents, who were outpatients at two hospitals in Ningxia. Parenting styles were measured using the Parental Bonding Instrument. Youth depression and anxiety were measured using the Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children and the Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders, respectively. We applied latent profile analysis to identify the subtypes of parenting styles with similar patterns. Differences between subtypes in relation to demographic variables and parenting style scores were calculated using one-way ANOVAs, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, and chi-squared tests. Bivariate logistic analyses were conducted to examine the associations between parental bonding subtypes and children's depression and anxiety. RESULTS: Four parenting styles were identified through latent profile analysis: care-autonomy, overprotection-indifference, indifference, and undifferentiated parenting. Youth with care-autonomy parents had a lower risk of depression (OR: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.06-0.41) and anxiety (OR: 0.22; 95% CI: 0.10-0.48), while indifference parenting increased children's risk of depression (OR: 5.29; 95% CI: 1.30-21.54) more than undifferentiated parenting. CONCLUSIONS: Children with a depressed parent had heterogeneous perceptions of parenting styles. Mothers' and fathers' parenting styles were largely congruent. Care-autonomy parenting (high care and high autonomy) may decrease children's risk of depression, whereas indifference parenting (low care and autonomy) may increase their risk of depression.

Parenting style as a predictor of dietary score change in children from 4 to 14 years of age. Findings from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between parenting style and changes in dietary quality score across childhood. DESIGN: This longitudinal analysis included the child's frequency of consumption for twelve food and drink items reported by mothers of children (aged 4-8 years) and children (aged 10-14 years) during face-to-face interviews biennially. These items were combined into dietary scores based on the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Parenting styles were classified at baseline as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and disengaged. Multilevel modelling was used to examine changes in diet quality score over time by maternal parenting styles. SETTING: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 4282 children aged 4 to 14 years. RESULTS: Children's diet quality score declined over time between 4 and 14 years of age (ß = -0·10, 95 % CI (-0·11, -0·08)). There was strong evidence to suggest that change in diet quality differed dependent on baseline maternal parenting style, although diet quality declined for all groups. Children with authoritative mothers had the greatest decline in diet quality score over time (ß = -0·13; 95 % CI (-0·18, -0·08)), while children with disengaged mothers had the lowest decline (ß = -0·03; 95 % CI (-0·07, 0·01)). However, it is important to note that children with authoritative mothers had a better dietary quality score than children of permissive or disengaged mothers for most of their childhood. CONCLUSION: These findings question the previous assumptions that early exposure to an authoritative parenting style has lasting positive effects on the dietary intake of children.

Gender-based eating norms, the family environment and food intake among Costa Rican adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between family environment variables (parenting styles, family meal atmosphere), gender-based stereotypes and food intake in Latin American adolescents. DESIGN: Structural equation modelling applied to cross-sectional data, 2017. SETTING: Urban and rural sites of San José, Costa Rica. PARTICIPANTS: n 813; 13-18 years old. RESULTS: Data suggest direct associations between gender-based stereotypes and intake of fruits and vegetables (FV) (ß = 0·20, P < 0·05), unhealthy foods (fast food (FF)) (ß = -0·24, P < 0·01) and ultra-processed foods (ß = -0·15, P < 0·05) among urban girls; intake of legumes among rural girls (ß = 0·16, P < 0·05) and intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) among rural boys (ß = 0·22, P < 0·05). Family meal atmosphere was associated with legume intake (ß = 0·19, P <·05) among rural girls. Authoritative parenting style was associated with FV intake (ß = 0·23, P < 0·05) among urban boys and FF intake (ß = 0·17, P < 0·05) among urban girls. Authoritarian parenting style was associated with FV consumption (ß = 0·19, P < 0·05) among rural boys, and with SSB and FF consumption (ß = 0·21, P < 0·05; ß = 0·14, P < 0·05, respectively) among urban girls. CONCLUSIONS: Findings are the first to describe the complex family environment and gender-based stereotypes within the context of a Latin American country. They emphasise the need for culturally relevant measurements to characterise the sociocultural context in which parent-adolescent dyads socialise and influence food consumption.