Sublethal pesticide exposure in non-target terrestrial ecosystems: From known effects on individuals to potential consequences on trophic interactions and network functioning.

Over the last decades, the intensification of agriculture has resulted in an increasing use of pesticides, which has led to widespread contamination of non-target ecosystems in agricultural landscapes. Plants and arthropods inhabiting these systems are therefore chronically exposed to, at least, low levels of pesticides through direct pesticide drift, but also through the contamination of their nutrient sources (e.g. soil water or host/prey tissues). Pesticides (herbicides, acaricides/insecticides and fungicides) are chemical substances used to control pests, such as weeds, phytophagous arthropods and pathogenic microorganisms. These molecules are designed to disturb specific physiological mechanisms and induce mortality in targeted organisms. However, under sublethal exposure, pesticides also affect biological processes including metabolism, development, reproduction or inter-specific interactions even in organisms that do not possess the molecular target of the pesticide. Despite the broad current knowledge on sublethal effects of pesticides on organisms, their adverse effects on trophic interactions are less investigated, especially within terrestrial trophic networks. In this review, we provide an overview of the effects, both target and non-target, of sublethal exposures to pesticides on traits involved in trophic interactions between plants, phytophagous insects and their natural enemies. We also discuss how these effects may impact ecosystem functioning by analyzing studies investigating the responses of Plant-Phytophage-Natural enemy trophic networks to pesticides. Finally, we highlight the current challenges and research prospects in the understanding of the effects of pesticides on trophic interactions and networks in non-target terrestrial ecosystems.

Biofungicides Based on Plant Extracts: On the Road to Organic Farming.

Phytopathogenic fungi are responsible for diseases in commercially important crops and cause major supply problems in the global food chain. Plants were able to protect themselves from disease before humans played an active role in protecting plants. They are known to synthesize a variety of secondary metabolites (SMs), such as terpenes, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds, which can be extracted using conventional and unconventional techniques to formulate biofungicides; plant extracts have antifungal activity and various mechanisms of action against these organisms. In addition, they are considered non-phytotoxic and potentially effective in disease control. They are a sustainable and economically viable alternative for use in agriculture, which is why biofungicides are increasingly recognized as an attractive option to solve the problems caused by synthetic fungicides. Currently, organic farming continues to grow, highlighting the importance of developing environmentally friendly alternatives for crop production. This review provides a compilation of the literature on biosynthesis, mechanisms of action of secondary metabolites against phytopathogens, extraction techniques and formulation of biofungicides, biological activity of plant extracts on phytopathogenic fungi, regulation, advantages, disadvantages and an overview of the current use of biofungicides in agriculture.

Walnut By-Products and Elderberry Extracts-Sustainable Alternatives for Human and Plant Health.

A current alternative for sustainable development through green chemistry is the replacement of synthetic compounds with natural ones through the superior capitalization of natural resources, with numerous applications in different fields. The benefits of walnuts (Juglans regia L.) and elderberries (Sambucus nigra L.) have been known since ancient times, due to the presence of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, polyphenols, carotenoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, tannins, steroids, anthocyanins, etc. These active compounds have multiple biological activities for human health, including benefits that are antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, etc. Like other medicinal plants, the walnut and the elderberry possess important phytosanitary properties (antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal) and their extracts can also be used as environmentally safe biopesticides, with the result that they constitute a viable and cheap alternative to environmentally harmful synthetic products. During recent years, walnut by-products and elderberries have attracted the attention of researchers, and investigations have focused on the species' valuable constituents and active properties. Comparing the information from the literature regarding the phytochemical profile and biological activities, it is highlighted that, apart from the predominant specific compounds, the walnut and the elderberry have common bioactive compounds, which come from six classes (phenols and derivatives, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins, triterpenoids, and phytosteroids), and act on the same microorganisms. From this perspective, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of the bioactive compounds present in the different constitutive parts of walnut by-products and elderberries, which present a specific or common activity related to human health and the protection of agricultural crops in the context of sustainable development.

Forest Insect Biosecurity: Processes, Patterns, Predictions, Pitfalls.

The economic and environmental threats posed by non-native forest insects are ever increasing with the continuing globalization of trade and travel; thus, the need for mitigation through effective biosecurity is greater than ever. However, despite decades of research and implementation of preborder, border, and postborder preventative measures, insect invasions continue to occur, with no evidence of saturation, and are even predicted to accelerate. In this article, we review biosecurity measures used to mitigate the arrival, establishment, spread, and impacts of non-native forest insects and possible impediments to the successful implementation of these measures. Biosecurity successes are likely under-recognized because they are difficult to detect and quantify, whereas failures are more evident in the continued establishment of additional non-native species. There are limitations in existing biosecurity systems at global and country scales (for example, inspecting all imports is impossible, no phytosanitary measures are perfect, knownunknowns cannot be regulated against, and noncompliance is an ongoing problem). Biosecurity should be a shared responsibility across countries, governments, stakeholders, and individuals.

PhytoPipe: a phytosanitary pipeline for plant pathogen detection and diagnosis using RNA-seq data.

BACKGROUND: Detection of exotic plant pathogens and preventing their entry and establishment are critical for the protection of agricultural systems while securing the global trading of agricultural commodities. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) has been applied successfully for plant pathogen discovery, leading to its current application in routine pathogen detection. However, the analysis of massive amounts of HTS data has become one of the major challenges for the use of HTS more broadly as a rapid diagnostics tool. Several bioinformatics pipelines have been developed to handle HTS data with a focus on plant virus and viroid detection. However, there is a need for an integrative tool that can simultaneously detect a wider range of other plant pathogens in HTS data, such as bacteria (including phytoplasmas), fungi, and oomycetes, and this tool should also be capable of generating a comprehensive report on the phytosanitary status of the diagnosed specimen. RESULTS: We have developed an open-source bioinformatics pipeline called PhytoPipe (Phytosanitary Pipeline) to provide the plant pathology diagnostician community with a user-friendly tool that integrates analysis and visualization of HTS RNA-seq data. PhytoPipe includes quality control of reads, read classification, assembly-based annotation, and reference-based mapping. The final product of the analysis is a comprehensive report for easy interpretation of not only viruses and viroids but also bacteria (including phytoplasma), fungi, and oomycetes. PhytoPipe is implemented in Snakemake workflow with Python 3 and bash scripts in a Linux environment. The source code for PhytoPipe is freely available and distributed under a BSD-3 license. CONCLUSIONS: PhytoPipe provides an integrative bioinformatics pipeline that can be used for the analysis of HTS RNA-seq data. PhytoPipe is easily installed on a Linux or Mac system and can be conveniently used with a Docker image, which includes all dependent packages and software related to analyses. It is publicly available on GitHub at https://github.com/healthyPlant/PhytoPipe and on Docker Hub at https://hub.docker.com/r/healthyplant/phytopipe .

Contaminated consignment simulation to support risk-based inspection design.

Invasive nonnative plant pests can cause extensive environmental and economic damage and are very difficult to eradicate once established. Phytosanitary inspections that aim to prevent biological invasions by limiting movement of nonnative plant pests across borders are a critical component of the biosecurity continuum. Inspections can also provide valuable information about when and where plant pests are crossing national boundaries. However, only a limited portion of the massive volume of goods imported daily can be inspected, necessitating a highly targeted, risk-based strategy. Furthermore, since inspections must prioritize detection and efficiency, their outcomes generally cannot be used to make inferences about risk for cargo pathways as a whole. Phytosanitary agencies need better tools for quantifying pests going undetected and designing risk-based inspection strategies appropriate for changing operational conditions. In this research, we present PoPS (Pest or Pathogen Spread) Border, an open-source consignment inspection simulator for measuring inspection outcomes under various cargo contamination scenarios to support recommendations for inspection protocols and estimate pest slippage rates. We used the tool to estimate contamination rates of historical interception data, quantify tradeoffs in effectiveness and workload for inspection strategies, and identify vulnerabilities in sampling protocols as changes in cargo configurations and contamination occur. These use cases demonstrate how this simulation approach permits testing inspection strategies and measuring quantities that would otherwise be impossible in a field-based setting. This work represents the first steps toward a decision support tool for creating dynamic inspection protocols that respond to changes in available resources, workload, and commerce trends.

Assessment of phytosanitary practices on the environment: case study potato of Loukkos (northwest Morocco).

Loukkos perimeter is among the most important irrigated agricultural areas in Morocco. It covers horticulture and market garden production, including potato. This crop is characterized by the intensive use of pesticides that could lead to health and ecological risks, via the food chain and contamination of natural resources, including groundwater. This study is aimed at assessing the use of pesticides in potato cultivation and their impacts on the environment and human health. Here, pesticide use was characterized by the number of treatments (NT), quantity of active substances indicator (QASI), and the treatment frequency indicator (TFI), through field surveys carried out on 50 Loukkos potato producers. The results showed that farmers use heavy pesticide treatments, mainly against late blight. We determined NT = 19 treatments, total TFI = 28.10, and QASI = 14.86 kg/ha. These values reflect a massive use of pesticides on this crop, which could therefore constitute a challenge and a major constraint for the development of sustainable agriculture in this zone, due to their negative environmental and health effects. It is, therefore, necessary to react quickly to make changes in phytosanitary practices with the aim to monitoring pesticide use via the agro-environmental indicators to reduce health and environmental impact of intensive pesticide use.

The lesser evil: Consumer acceptance of X-ray irradiation compared with alternative phytosanitary treatments.

X-ray irradiation is becoming a mainstream phytosanitary food treatment that is compatible with solving sustainability challenges. However, understanding how consumers respond to X-ray irradiation is still underdeveloped in research. In two studies, the current research sheds light on the acceptance of X-ray irradiation by New Zealand consumers, compared with an existing treatment, methyl bromide. Study 1 used focus groups to provide insights into barriers and opportunities of X-ray irradiation perceived by participants who accept, are passive towards, or reject irradiation. Acceptors of X-ray highlighted familiarity of use, non-residue/lack of chemicals, and environmentally friendly as positive factors, whereas danger of radiation and long-term health concerns were strong themes for rejection. Subsequently, study 2 extended this to provide a snapshot of measures representative of such themes to understand current attitudes towards X-ray irradiation itself, and as a replacement for methyl bromide usage. The results of study 2 indicated that when provided with information on X-ray in isolation, under half the respondents (39%) indicated a willingness to eat foods treated with X-ray. However, when forced to choose between food that had been treated with either X-ray or methyl bromide, the majority of respondents (84%) chose irradiation. Overall, the studies present an overview that whilst consumers may be apprehensive or passive about acceptance of X-ray irradiation (study 1), they overwhelmingly accept X-ray irradiation over the current alternative in New Zealand, methyl bromide (study 2). This was voiced by participants as accepting 'the lesser of two evils'.

Vacuum Steam Treatment of Metrosideros polymorpha Logs for Eradication of Ceratocystis huliohia and C. lukuohia.

A new and devastating disease, rapid ohia death (ROD), in Hawaii led to a state quarantine that regulates interisland transport of ohia wood and plant material to prevent spread of the causal pathogens. Heat treatments of ohia logs in commercial trade were considered for phytosanitary treatment. Vacuum steam (VS) was evaluated for its ability to eradicate the pathogens, Ceratocystis lukuohia and C. huliohia, in main stem logs from ROD-affected forest trees. Replicate loads of three debarked logs (24 to 43 cm in diameter, 1.7 to 2.0 m long) were VS treated at 56°C for 30 min (five loads) or 60°C for 60 min (four loads) at a sapwood depth equal to 70% of log radius. Percentage isolation of Ceratocystis from VS and ambient temperature logs before treatment and summarized by source tree ranged from 12 to 66% and 6 to 31% based on carrot baiting assays of tissue taken from outer and inner sapwood, respectively. No viable Ceratocystis was detected in sapwood locations for the 60°C/60 min schedule or inner locations for the 56°C/30 min schedule after treatment. Only one subsample (0.48%, n = 208) of the latter schedule treatment yielded Ceratocystis. Time needed for treatment ranged from 7.4 to 15 h for the 56°C/30 min schedule and from 8.6 to 19.2 h for the 60°C/60 min schedule. These results demonstrate that VS is an effective and efficient method for treating large-diameter ohia logs that mill owners and regulatory plant pathologists may consider for use in Hawaii.

The Impact of Management Strategies on the Development and Status of Potato Cyst Nematode Populations in Switzerland: An Overview from 1958 to Present.

Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida are some of the most successful and highly specialized plant parasitic nematodes and among the most regulated quarantine pests globally. In Switzerland, they have been monitored by annual surveys since their first detection in Swiss soil in 1958. The dataset created was reviewed to produce an overview of the development and actual status of potato cyst nematodes (PCNs) in Switzerland. Positive fields represent 0.2% of all the samples analyzed, and their distribution is limited to central-west and western Switzerland, suggesting that new introduction of PCNs and the spread of the initial introduced PCN populations did not occur. In this way, the integrated management used in Switzerland appears to be effective. However, the increasing availability of potato varieties with resistance to G. rostochiensis and the limited availability of varieties with resistance to G. pallida, together with other biotic and abiotic factors, have promoted changes in the dominance of either species. Consequently, an extended monitoring program is of interest to Swiss farmers, to avoid favoring virulent traits that could be present in Swiss Globodera populations.

Approaches for estimating benefits and costs of interventions in plant biosecurity across invasion phases.

Nonnative plant pests cause billions of dollars in damages. It is critical to prevent or reduce these losses by intervening at various stages of the invasion process, including pathway risk management (to prevent pest arrival), surveillance and eradication (to counter establishment), and management of established pests (to limit damages). Quantifying benefits and costs of these interventions is important to justify and prioritize investments and to inform biosecurity policy. However, approaches for these estimations differ in (1) the assumed relationship between supply, demand, and prices, and (2) the ability to assess different types of direct and indirect costs at invasion stages, for a given arrival or establishment probability. Here we review economic approaches available to estimate benefits and costs of biosecurity interventions to inform the appropriate selection of approaches. In doing so, we complement previous studies and reviews on estimates of damages from invasive species by considering the influence of economic and methodological assumptions. Cost accounting is suitable for rapid decisions, specific impacts, and simple methodological assumptions but fails to account for feedbacks, such as market adjustments, and may overestimate long-term economic impacts. Partial equilibrium models consider changes in consumer and producer surplus due to pest impacts or interventions and can account for feedbacks in affected sectors but require specialized economic models, comprehensive data sets, and estimates of commodity supply and demand curves. More intensive computable general equilibrium models can account for feedbacks across entire economies, including capital and labor, and linkages among these. The two major considerations in choosing an approach are (1) the goals of the analysis (e.g., consideration of a single pest or intervention with a limited range of impacts vs. multiple interventions, pests or sectors), and (2) the resources available for analysis such as knowledge, budget and time.

Antifungal Activity of Chemical Constituents from Piper pesaresanum C. DC. and Derivatives against Phytopathogen Fungi of Cocoa.

In this study, the antifungal potential of chemical constituents from Piper pesaresanum and some synthesized derivatives was determined against three phytopathogenic fungi associated with the cocoa crop. The methodology included the phytochemical study on the aerial part of P. pesaresanum, the synthesis of some derivatives and the evaluation of the antifungal activity against the fungi Moniliophthora roreri, Fusarium solani and Phytophthora sp. The chemical study allowed the isolation of three benzoic acid derivatives (1-3), one dihydrochalcone (4) and a mixture of sterols (5-7). Seven derivatives (8-14) were synthesized from the main constituents, of which compounds 9, 10, 12 and 14 are reported for the first time. Benzoic acid derivatives showed strong antifungal activity against M. roreri, of which 11 (3.0 ± 0.8 µM) was the most active compound with an IC50 lower compared with positive control Mancozeb® (4.9 ± 0.4 µM). Dihydrochalcones and acid derivatives were active against F. solani and Phytophthora sp., of which 3 (32.5 ± 3.3 µM) and 4 (26.7 ± 5.3 µM) were the most active compounds, respectively. The preliminary structure-activity relationship allowed us to establish that prenylated chains and the carboxyl group are important in the antifungal activity of benzoic acid derivatives. Likewise, a positive influence of the carbonyl group on the antifungal activity for dihydrochalcones was deduced.

Machine learning algorithms for forecasting the incidence of Coffea arabica pests and diseases.

Disease and pest alert models are able to generate information for agrochemical applications only when needed, reducing costs and environmental impacts. With machine learning algorithms, it is possible to develop models to be used in disease and pest warning systems as a function of the weather in order to improve the efficiency of chemical control of pests of the coffee tree. Thus, we correlated the infection rates with the weather variables and also calibrated and tested machine learning algorithms to predict the incidence of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee borer. We used weather and field data obtained from coffee plantations in production in the southern regions of the State of Minas Gerais (SOMG) and from the region of the Cerrado Mineiro; these crops did not receive phytosanitary treatments. The algorithms calibrated and tested for prediction were (a) Multiple linear regression (RLM); (b) K Neighbors Regressor (KNN); (c) Random Forest Regressor (RFT), and (d) Artificial Neural Networks (MLP). As dependent variables, we considered the monthly rates of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee tree borer, and the weather elements were considered as independent (predictor) variables. Pearson correlation analyses were performed considering three different time periods, 1-10 d (from 1 to 10 days before the incidence evaluation), 11-20 d, and 21-30 d, and used to evaluate the unit correlations between the weather variables and infection rates of coffee diseases and pests. The models were calibrated in years of high and low yields, because the biannual variation of harvest yield of coffee beans influences the severity of the diseases. The models were compared by the Willmott's 'd', RMSE (root mean square error), and coefficient of determination (R2) indices. The result of the more accurate algorithm was specialized for the SOMG and Cerrado Mineiro regions using the kriging method. The weather variables that showed significant correlations with coffee rust disease were maximum air temperature, number of days with relative humidity above 80%, and relative humidity. RFT was more accurate in the prediction of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee borer using weather conditions. In the SOMG, RFT showed a greater accuracy in the predictions for the Cerrado Mineiro in years of high and low yields and for all diseases. In SOMG, the RMSE values ranged from 0.227 to 0.853 for high-yield and 0.147 and 0.827 for low-yield coffee in the coffee borer forecasting.

Trust in trade: a global perspective on health certification.

Trade in livestock and livestock products can bring about great benefits, but also substantial risk to animal and human health with high economic, social and environmental impacts. Livestock products are also especially vulnerable to food fraud. In order to mitigate risk and prevent fraud, most animal trade requires health certification by a competent authority, backed by systems and processes that create trust and confidence in importers. Among Veterinary Services which have undergone a structured assessment of performance, most find the need to improve their authority and/or capability for health certificates and for transparent disease reporting. Health certification is trusted when it is legal, carried out by an adequately performing authority, implemented by competent persons, supported by technical evidence, and validated by third parties and when the process is transparent, predictable and free from conflict of interest. The large and growing trade in animals and their products is a testimony to the effectiveness of the current process and the trust of importers. Nonetheless, there is considerable scope for further improvement especially by improving the legal framework, building capacity of Veterinary Services, increasing trust in signing authorities, validating the certification process, and making the process of certification more efficient and predictable.

Si les échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale peuvent être très bénéfiques, ils représentent aussi un risque non négligeable pour la santé animale et publique, dont l'impact économique, social et environnemental est parfois conséquent. Il y a également un risque élevé de fraude alimentaire associé aux produits issus de l'élevage. Afin d'atténuer ces risques et de prévenir les fraudes, les échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale sont généralement soumis à une certification sanitaire délivrée par l'autorité compétente et soutenue par des systèmes et des processus destinés à créer la confiance chez les importateurs. La plupart des Services vétérinaires qui ont entrepris une évaluation structurée de leurs performances ont pu constater la nécessité d'améliorer leur autorité et/ou leurs capacités en matière de certification sanitaire et de notification transparente des maladies. Plusieurs facteurs conditionnent la confiance dans la certification sanitaire : que celle-ci soit encadrée par la loi ; qu'elle soit effectuée par une autorité reconnue ; que les personnes chargées de sa mise en oeuvre soient qualifiées ; qu'elle soit soutenue par des données techniques probantes ; qu'elle soit validée par des tiers indépendants. En outre, l'ensemble du processus doit être transparent, prévisible et exempt de conflits d'intérêts. L'importance et la croissance du commerce international d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale témoignent de l'efficacité actuelle du processus et de la confiance des importateurs. Néanmoins, il subsiste encore une marge notable d'amélioration, qui concerne le cadre juridique, le renforcement des capacités des Services vétérinaires, la confiance dans les instances décisionnaires, la validation du processus de certification et l'efficience et prévisibilité du processus lui-même.

El comercio de ganado y productos ganaderos puede traer consigo grandes beneficios, pero también un importante riesgo sanitario y zoosanitario, con posibles y profundas repercusiones económicas, sociales y ambientales. Los productos ganaderos también son especialmente vulnerables al fraude alimentario. Con objeto de mitigar el riesgo y de prevenir posibles fraudes, la mayor parte de los intercambios comerciales con animales se acompañan de la exigencia de un certificado sanitario expedido por una autoridad competente y respaldado por sistemas y procesos que inspiren confianza a los importadores. La mayoría de los Servicios Veterinarios que han pasado por un proceso de evaluación estructurada de su eficacia llegaron a la conclusión de que debían dotarse de mayor autoridad y/o capacidad para expedir certificados sanitarios y notificar enfermedades con transparencia. Para que un proceso de certificación sanitaria sea digno de confianza debe ajustarse a derecho, estar en manos de una autoridad que trabaje con la debida eficacia y a cargo de personal competente, venir avalado por datos técnicos y validado por terceras partes, ser transparente y previsible y estar exento de conflictos de intereses. El enorme y creciente volumen del comercio de animales y productos de origen animal da testimonio de la eficacia del actual proceso y de la confianza que merece a los importadores. Sin embargo, aún hay mucho margen para progresar, sobre todo perfeccionando el ordenamiento jurídico, potenciando la capacidad de los Servicios Veterinarios, mejorando el nivel de confianza que inspiran las autoridades signatarias, validando el proceso de certificación y logrando que este sea más eficiente y previsible.

Developing and implementing a protocol for bilateral trade agreements: the Philippines' shift to a risk assessment policy and meeting its challenges.

The livestock and poultry industries in the Philippines have been continuously growing for the past six years, as reflected in the Philippine Statistics Authority annual reports from 2013 to 2018. To augment supplies and ensure food sufficiency, as well as to fulfil trade agreements, the government has adopted a policy of importing some livestock commodities. Currently, the Philippines imports about 20% of its total meat requirements, and this figure is expected to increase over the next few years. Private traders and companies could import buffalo meat without restriction until 1996, when the Department of Agriculture (DA) intervened by sending inspection missions to exporting countries due to the concerns of the livestock industry about the foot and mouth disease challenges during that time. But, at that point, there were still no clear rules, regulations or standards governing the importation of meat and meat products into the Philippines. By 2003, as outbreaks of transboundary animal diseases were occurring in the region (avian influenza as well as foot and mouth disease), the government saw the need to protect its borders from the entry, establishment and spread of animal diseases. Measures were needed to prevent the introduction of disease-carrying, contaminated or adulterated meat and meat products that could endanger the lives and health of Filipino consumers and, consequently, have potentially serious economic impacts on the livestock industry and other allied industries. As more and more requests were received to import meat and meat products, and as various stakeholder groups began to question why increasing numbers of imports were being allowed into the country, the DA began to shift to a risk-based policy rather than a policy of 100% inspection. The Philippine Government ensured that there was a legal basis as well as a scientific basis for orders governing the importation of meat and live animals. As the country shifts to a risk-based policy, making the public understand why it is implementing this policy remains a major challenge. Other areas that need to be developed and strengthened include quarantine and border security procedures, certification programmes, identification and traceability, export procedures, periodic auditing schemes, animal health programmes, capacities for risk analysis, and provincial border controls, which can be set by local governments to allow provinces to protect their locality.

Au cours des six dernières années, les secteurs de l'élevage de bétail et de volailles des Philippines ont enregistré une croissance continue, comme l'indiquent les rapports annuels de 2013 à 2018 publiés par l'Autorité philippine des statistiques. Afin d'accroître l'offre, de garantir la suffisance de l'approvisionnement alimentaire et de respecter ses accords commerciaux, le gouvernement a adopté une politique de soutien aux importations de certains produits d'élevage. Les Philippines importent actuellement près de 20 % de la viande consommée dans le pays, proportion qui devrait augmenter dans les prochaines années. Les négociants et entreprises privées ont pu importer de la viande de buffle sans aucune restriction jusqu'en 1996, date à laquelle le ministère de l'Agriculture est intervenu en dépêchant des missions d'inspection dans les pays exportateurs afin de répondre aux préoccupations exprimées par le secteur de l'élevage philippin face au problème de la fièvre aphteuse. Mais à ce stade, le pays ne s'était encore doté d'aucune règle, réglementation ou norme régissant clairement les importations de viande et de produits carnés aux Philippines. En 2003, face aux foyers de maladies animales transfrontalières survenus dans la région (influenza aviaire, mais aussi fièvre aphteuse), le gouvernement a pris acte de la nécessité de protéger ses frontières contre les risques d'introduction, d'établissement et de propagation de maladies animales. Il fallait donc prendre des mesures pour empêcher l'introduction de viandes et de produits carnés susceptibles de véhiculer des maladies et d'être contaminés ou frelatés et pouvant de ce fait mettre en danger la vie et la santé des consommateurs philippins, voire entraîner de graves conséquences économiques pour le secteur de l'élevage et d'autres secteurs connexes. À mesure que le nombre des demandes d'importations de viande et de produits carnés augmentait et que plusieurs groupes intéressés ont voulu connaître les raisons du nombre croissant d'autorisations délivrées à cette fin, le ministère de l'Agriculture a décidé de passer d'une politique d'inspection de l'intégralité des importations à une politique fondée sur le risque. Le gouvernement des Philippines a veillé à fournir un cadre juridique ainsi qu'une base scientifique aux nouvelles dispositions régissant les importations de viande et d'animaux vivants. La principale difficulté pour réussir cette mutation vers une politique fondée sur le risque consiste à faire comprendre au public les raisons de sa mise en oeuvre. D'autres aspects doivent également être développés et renforcés, en particulier les procédures de quarantaine et de sécurité des frontières, les programmes de certification, l'identification et la traçabilité, les procédures applicables aux exportations, les schémas périodiques d'audit, les programmes de santé animale, les capacités dédiées à l'analyse du risque et les contrôles aux frontières provinciales mis en place par les autorités locales pour protéger leur territoire.

Los sectores ganadero y avícola de Filipinas llevan seis años de continuo crecimiento, como se desprende de los informes anuales del Organismo de Estadística de Filipinas que cubren de 2013 a 2018. Con objeto de incrementar la oferta y asegurar la suficiencia alimentaria, y también de cumplir los acuerdos comerciales que tiene suscritos, el Gobierno ha optado por importar una serie de productos ligados a la ganadería. Actualmente, el país importa alrededor del 20% de la carne que necesita, porcentaje que en los próximos años irá previsiblemente en aumento. Las empresas e intermediarios privados podían importar sin restricciones carne de búfalo hasta 1996, cuando el Departamento de Agricultura (DA) intervino enviando misiones de inspección a los países exportadores en respuesta a la inquietud expresada por el sector ganadero sobre los problemas que planteaba a la sazón la fiebre aftosa. Por aquel entonces, sin embargo, aún no había reglas, reglamentos y normas claros que rigieran la importación a Filipinas de carne y productos cárnicos. En 2003, cuando la región estaba sufriendo brotes de enfermedades animales transfronterizas (influenza aviar y fiebre aftosa), el Gobierno juzgó necesario proteger sus fronteras de la penetración, implantación y propagación de enfermedades animales. Se precisaban medidas para evitar la introducción de carne y productos cárnicos portadores de enfermedades, contaminados o adulterados que pudieran poner en peligro la vida o la salud del consumidor filipino y causar, en consecuencia, graves perjuicios económicos a la ganadería y otros sectores conexos. A medida que se iban recibiendo cada vez más peticiones para importar carne y productos cárnicos a la par que diversos interlocutores y colectivos empezaban a preguntar por qué se permitía la entrada en el país de un número creciente de importaciones, el DA fue orillando la inspección del 100% de las partidas para privilegiar en su lugar una política basada en la determinación del riesgo. El Gobierno filipino se aseguró de que los decretos que regían la importación de carne y animales vivos reposaran en sólidas bases jurídicas y científicas. Ahora que el país está virando hacia una política basada en el riesgo, una de las grandes dificultades siguen siendo la de hacer entender a la población el porqué de tal política. Otros ámbitos que es preciso desarrollar y potenciar son, por ejemplo, los procedimientos de cuarentena y seguridad fronteriza, los programas de certificación, la identificación y trazabilidad, los procedimientos de exportación, los dispositivos de auditoría periódica, los programas de sanidad animal, la capacidad de análisis del riesgo y los controles de las fronteras provinciales que pueden instaurar los gobiernos locales para que las provincias puedan proteger su propio territorio.

The World Trade Organization Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and veterinary control procedures.

World Trade Organization (WTO) Members have developed a framework of rules and guidance for veterinary control, inspection and approval procedures for international trade in animals and animal products. The core of this guidance can be found in Article 8 and Annex C of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), which help Members to achieve the twin objectives of ensuring animal health and facilitating safe trade through their detailed disciplines. The issue of veterinary control, inspection and approval procedures frequently surfaces on the agenda of the Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures when Members discuss trade concerns or decide to explore this topic in periodic reviews of the SPS Agreement. The WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (2017), which was crafted to further expedite the movement and clearance of goods, brought additional structure to the design and operation of border procedures, including veterinary control procedures. The entry into force of the Trade Facilitation Agreement also increased, in many cases, the visibility and resources allocated to the operation of border controls, including international assistance. These processes provide further opportunities to enhance the profile of veterinary and other SPS agencies besides that of Customs, and to improve coordination among these various agencies and organisations.

Les Membres de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) ont mis en place un cadre de règles et de directives concernant les procédures de contrôle vétérinaire, d'inspection et d'autorisation applicables aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale. L'article 8 et l'annexe C de l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS) constituent le coeur de ce dispositif destiné à aider les Membres à réaliser leur double objectif de protection de la santé animale et de facilitation d'un commerce sûr, grâce à un ensemble de disciplines définies de manière détaillée. La question des procédures de contrôle vétérinaire, d'inspection et d'autorisation refait régulièrement surface dans les délibérations du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires, par exemple lorsque les Membres abordent de nouveaux sujets d'inquiétude liés au commerce ou décident de réexaminer cet aspect à l'occasion des révisions périodiques de l'Accord SPS. Conçu pour accélérer le mouvement et le dédouanement des marchandises, l'Accord de l'OMC sur la facilitation des échanges (2017) s'est traduit par un meilleur agencement de la conception et de la mise en oeuvre concrète des procédures appliquées aux frontières, en particulier les procédures de contrôle vétérinaire. Dans bien des cas, l'entrée en vigueur de l'Accord sur la facilitation des échanges a également amélioré la visibilité des opérations de contrôle aux frontières ainsi que les ressources qui leur sont allouées, y compris dans le contexte de l'aide internationale. Ces processus ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour renforcer le profil non seulement des autorités douanières mais aussi des organismes chargés de la santé animale et des agences sanitaires et phytosanitaires et pour améliorer la coordination entre ces différentes agences et organisations.

Los Miembros de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) han elaborado un marco de referencia con reglas y pautas referidas a los procedimientos veterinarios de control, inspección y aprobación para el comercio internacional de animales y productos de origen animal. Los elementos básicos de estas orientaciones figuran en el artículo 8 y el Anexo C del Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF), que ayudan a los Miembros a cumplir dos objetivos indisociables: asegurar la sanidad animal y facilitar un comercio seguro gracias a las detalladas disciplinas que contienen. En el Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias se abordan a menudo cuestiones relativas a los procedimientos veterinarios de control, inspección y aprobación, cuando los Miembros tratan problemas comerciales o deciden estudiar el tema como parte del proceso de examen periódico del Acuerdo MSF. El Acuerdo de la OMC sobre Facilitación del Comercio (2017), elaborado con objeto de acelerar el movimiento de bienes y la correspondiente expedición de autorizaciones, introdujo una nueva estructura en la configuración y el funcionamiento de los procedimientos aduaneros, incluidos los de control veterinario. En muchos casos, la entrada en vigor del Acuerdo sobre Facilitación del Comercio también otorgó más protagonismo a la aplicación de controles fronterizos y llevó a destinarle un mayor volumen de recursos, entre otras cosas a través de la asistencia internacional. Estos procesos abren nuevas posibilidades para potenciar la función de los Servicios Veterinarios y otros servicios relacionados con las cuestiones sanitarias y fitosanitarias, además de los de aduanas, y para mejorar la coordinación entre estos diversos servicios, organismos y organizaciones.

Guatemala: efforts to facilitate free trade in an animal health context. / Guatemala: esfuerzos para facilitar el libre comercio en el marco de la sanidad animal.

This article describes the development of Guatemala's animal health legislation since the country signed the international agreement establishing the World Organisation for Animal Health (then Office International des Epizooties) in 1924. This includes the evolution of the legislative framework, with the adoption of the Guatemalan Animal Health Code in 1936, the adoption of the Animal Health Law in 1947 and its conversion into the Plant and Animal Health Law and implementing regulations in 1998. This article also analyses changes in the operational and administrative structure of the competent animal health authority - the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food - in 1978, 1998 and 2010, until the Trade Facilitation Agreement of the World Trade Organization was approved in 2017. It also discusses the role of the Ministry of Economy, through the Foreign Trade Administration Directorate, in boosting the enforcement of sanitary and phytosanitary measures through the National Technical Committee for Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

L'auteur de cet article explique le développement de la législation vétérinaire au Guatemala depuis que ce pays a souscrit à l'Arrangement international portant création de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) en 1924. Ce développement s'est traduit par une évolution du cadre législatif avec l'approbation dès 1936 du Code sanitaire guatémaltèque, la promulgation en 1947 de la Loi de santé animale, puis en 1998 sa transformation en Loi de santé végétale et animale assortie de son Règlement d'application. L'auteur analyse également les changements intervenus dans la structure opérationnelle et administrative de l'autorité sanitaire compétente (ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'élevage et de l'alimentation) en 1978, en 1998 et en 2010, jusqu'à l'adoption de l'Accord sur la facilitation des échanges de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) en 2017. De même, l'auteur mentionne le rôle joué par le ministère de l'Économie et plus particulièrement par la Direction administrative du commerce extérieur dans le renforcement de l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires sous la conduite du Comité technique national des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires.

En este artículo se explica el desarrollo de la legislación de Guatemala en materia de sanidad animal desde que el país suscribió el acta de constitución de la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal, en 1924. Dicho desarrollo incluye la evolución del marco legislativo con la aprobación, a partir del año 1936, del Código Sanitario Guatemalteco, la posterior aprobación de la Ley de Sanidad Animal, en concreto en 1947, la conversión en Ley de Sanidad Vegetal y Animal y el Reglamento de 1998. También se analizan los cambios en la estructura operativa y administrativa de la autoridad sanitaria competente, el Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación, en los años 1978, 1998 y 2010, hasta la aprobación del Acuerdo de Facilitación de Comercio de la Organización Mundial del Comercio en el año de 2017. Asimismo, se menciona el papel del Ministerio de Economía, a través de la Dirección de Administración del Comercio Exterior, para el reforzamiento de la aplicación de medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias por medio del Comité Técnico Nacional de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias.

International regulatory cooperation: contribution of the OIE and the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and SPS Committee.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) play an important role in supporting efforts to facilitate the safe trade of animals and animal products by promoting international regulatory cooperation among their Members. International regulatory cooperation is embedded in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and is an integral part of the work of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Committee. The OIE plays a crucial part in this cooperation, as the OIE is the WTO reference organisation for international standards related to animal health and zoonoses. The SPS Agreement encourages governments to apply national sanitary measures that are consistent with OIE standards, particularly when making decisions on the importation of animals and animal products. This principle of harmonisation is key to integrating the reference frameworks of the WTO SPS Agreement and the OIE standards. This paper describes international regulatory cooperation, the principle of harmonisation and its expressions, and, finally, the various ways in which the WTO and the OIE cooperate towards the achievement of their goals.

L'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) et l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) jouent un rôle majeur dans les efforts déployés pour faciliter des échanges internationaux sûrs d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale en encourageant leurs Membres à faire appel à la coopération réglementaire internationale. La coopération réglementaire internationale s'inscrit dans l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS) de l'OMC et fait partie intégrante des travaux du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires. L'OIE est un acteur essentiel de cette coopération, étant reconnue par l'OMC comme l'organisation de référence pour les normes internationales en lien avec la santé animale et les zoonoses. L'Accord SPS encourage les gouvernements à faire en sorte que les mesures sanitaires nationales qu'ils appliquent soient conformes aux normes de l'OIE, en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de décisions relatives aux importations d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale. Ce principe d'harmonisation est essentiel pour intégrer les cadres de référence que constituent à la fois l'Accord SPS de l'OMC et les normes de l'OIE. Cet article décrit la coopération réglementaire internationale, le principe d'harmonisation et ses traductions concrètes, et, enfin, les diverses modalités de la coopération entre l'OMC et l'OIE en vue de réaliser leurs objectifs.

La Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) y la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), al promover la cooperación internacional entre sus Miembros sobre cuestiones ligadas a la reglamentación, cumplen una importante función de apoyo para facilitar el comercio seguro de animales y productos de origen animal. La cooperación internacional sobre temas de reglamentación, inscrita en el Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF), forma parte integrante de la labor del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Comité MSF). La intervención de la OIE es fundamental en esta cooperación, puesto que es la organización de referencia para la OMC en cuanto a la normativa internacional sobre sanidad animal y zoonosis. El Acuerdo MSF promueve que los gobiernos apliquen medidas sanitarias nacionales acordes con las normas de la OIE, especialmente al adoptar decisiones sobre la importación de animales y productos de origen animal. Este principio de armonización es clave para integrar los marcos de referencia que constituyen tanto el Acuerdo MSF de la OMC como las normas de la OIE. Las autoras describen la cooperación internacional en materia de reglamentación, el principio de armonización y sus aplicaciones prácticas y, por último, las diversas maneras en que la OMC y la OIE colaboran entre sí para cumplir sus objetivos.

Facilitating market access: risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation provisions in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures contains several key provisions that are important for trade in animals and animal products, namely on risk assessment, equivalence and regionalisation. The risk assessment provision allows countries to adopt, on the basis of a risk assessment, measures which achieve a higher level of sanitary protection than that embodied in existing relevant international standards. The equivalence provision requires importing countries to acknowledge that, while the production methods of the exporting country may differ from their own, they may still provide an equivalent level of health protection. Finally, the regionalisation provision enables countries to export animals and animal products from diseasefree areas, even if other areas within that country have experienced outbreaks of a particular animal disease. This paper explores how these provisions, and the scientific concept of the appropriate level of protection, facilitate trade while at the same time allowing Members to establish their sanitary measures. This paper also provides information on the relevant discussions of these provisions within the Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

L'Accord de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires contient d'importantes dispositions relatives aux échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale qui concernent les aspects suivants : l'évaluation du risque, l'équivalence et la régionalisation. La disposition sur l'évaluation du risque permet à un pays d'adopter des mesures conférant un niveau de protection plus élevé que celui prévu dans les normes internationales en vigueur, dès lors que cette décision se fonde sur une évaluation du risque. En vertu du principe d'équivalence, un pays importateur est tenu de reconnaître que les méthodes de production appliquées par un pays exportateur peuvent différer de celles qu'il applique luimême et apporter néanmoins des garanties de protection sanitaire équivalentes aux siennes. Enfin, la régionalisation permet aux pays d'exporter des animaux et des produits d'origine animale à partir des régions de leur territoire qui sont indemnes de maladies, même si des foyers d'une maladie animale particulière ont été enregistrés dans d'autres régions. L'auteure explique en quoi ces dispositions et le concept scientifique de « niveau approprié de protection ¼ facilitent le commerce tout en permettant aux Membres d'instaurer leurs propres mesures sanitaires. L'auteure décrit également les discussions dont ces dispositions font l'objet au sein du Comité des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires.

El Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF) de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) contiene varias disposiciones básicas que son importantes para el comercio de animales y productos de origen animal, a saber, las relativas a la determinación del riesgo, a la equivalencia y a la regionalización. La disposición sobre determinación del riesgo permite que los países, basándose en una determinación del riesgo, adopten medidas que conlleven un nivel de protección sanitaria mayor que el que establecen las normas internacionales existentes en la materia. La disposición sobre equivalencia exige que los países importadores reconozcan que los métodos de producción del país exportador, aun pudiendo diferir de los propios, pueden ofrecer un nivel equivalente de protección sanitaria. La disposición sobre regionalización, por último, permite que un país exporte animales y productos de origen animal procedentes de zonas libres de enfermedad aun cuando otras zonas de ese mismo país hayan sufrido brotes de una enfermedad animal en particular. La autora explica cómo estas disposiciones y el concepto científico de «nivel apropiado de protección¼ facilitan el comercio y a la vez permiten a los Miembros instaurar sus propias medidas sanitarias. Asimismo, proporciona información sobre los debates y reflexiones del Comité de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias en torno a estas disposiciones.

World Trade Organization disputes related to animal diseases.

Four trade disputes concerning animal diseases have undergone the formal dispute resolution procedure of the World Trade Organization (WTO). These cases clarify a number of provisions of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). A national measure that contradicts a standard set by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), for example by prohibiting a product that is permitted under the OIE standard, is not 'based on' that standard. Such a measure must be based on an appropriate risk assessment. For animal diseases, this means not only assessing the likelihood of entry, establishment or spread of the disease, and the associated biological and economic consequences, but also assessing each feasible mitigation measure. Any mitigation measure imposed must be rationally supported by the risk assessment. A highly trade-restrictive measure, such as a ban, is more easily justified if the identified risk is high. A measure imposed to protect health cannot impose stricter requirements on one product than on another with a similar level of risk. A WTO Member acts inconsistently with the SPS Agreement if an alternative measure, which is technically and economically feasible and restricts trade less, would achieve the desired level of protection. Countries must adapt their SPS requirements to reflect the disease risk of the area or zone from which a product comes and for which it is destined. Procedures to assess risk and determine the disease status of a region must be completed without unjustified delays, and only the information necessary for this can be requested of the exporter.

Quatre différends commerciaux en lien avec des maladies animales ont été soumis à l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) en vue de déclencher la procédure formelle de règlement des différends. Ces cas ont permis de clarifier un certain nombre de dispositions de l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS). Ainsi, une mesure nationale contredisant une norme établie par l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE), par exemple en interdisant un produit que ladite norme de l'OIE autorise, ne peut en aucun cas se prévaloir d'être « basée sur ¼ cette norme. Les mesures de ce type doivent se fonder sur une évaluation appropriée du risque. S'agissant des maladies animales, cela signifie qu'il faut non seulement évaluer les probabilités d'entrée, d'établissement ou de dissémination de l'agent causal de la maladie en question, ainsi que les conséquences biologiques et économiques qui en résultent, mais aussi évaluer une par une les différentes mesures d'atténuation réalisables. Toute mesure d'atténuation imposée doit être fondée de manière rationnelle sur cette évaluation du risque. Les mesures fortement restrictives, par exemple les interdictions, sont d'autant plus faciles à justifier que le risque identifié est élevé. Une mesure appliquée pour un produit déterminé dans le but de protéger la santé ne peut pas imposer de conditions plus strictes que celles portant sur d'autres produits présentant un niveau de risque similaire. Un membre de l'OMC agirait de manière incompatible avec l'Accord SPS s'il existe une mesure alternative, techniquement et économiquement réalisable mais moins contraignante pour le commerce, qui permettrait d'atteindre le niveau de protection requis. Les pays doivent adapter leurs exigences sanitaires et phytosanitaires en fonction du risque de maladie dans les régions ou zones de provenance et de destination du produit. Les procédures visant à évaluer le risque et à déterminer le statut d'une région au regard d'une maladie déterminée doivent être menées à terme sans délai injustifié et elles constituent le seul objet des informations exigibles auprès du pays exportateur.

El procedimiento oficial de solución de controversias de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) ha sido aplicado a cuatro litigios comerciales relacionados con enfermedades animales. Estos casos han resultado esclarecedores por lo que respecta a algunas de las disposiciones del Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF). Si una medida nacional contraviene una norma dictada por la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), por ejemplo porque prohíbe un producto que según esa norma debe estar permitido, no se considera que tal medida está «basada en¼ la norma en cuestión. Semejante medida debe reposar en una adecuada determinación del riesgo. En el caso de las enfermedades animales, ello supone no solo determinar la probabilidad de penetración, establecimiento o propagación de la patología, así como sus posibles repercusiones biológicas y económicas, sino también evaluar cada una de las medidas factibles de mitigación. Toda medida de mitigación que se imponga debe ser una consecuencia racional del proceso de determinación del riesgo. Una medida que sea muy restrictiva del comercio, como pueda ser una prohibición, se justificará más fácilmente cuando se haya determinado previamente que existe un gran riesgo. Una medida destinada a proteger la salud no puede imponer a un producto requisitos más estrictos que a otro que entrañe un nivel parecido de riesgo. Un Miembro de la OMC no estará respetando el Acuerdo MSF cuando exista una medida alternativa, que sea técnica y económicamente factible y restrinja en menor medida el comercio, con la que se pueda lograr el nivel deseado de protección. Los países deben adaptar sus requisitos sanitarios y fitosanitarios al riesgo de enfermedad reinante en la zona de origen y la zona de destino del producto en cuestión. Los procedimientos para evaluar el nivel de riesgo de una región y determinar la situación de una enfermedad en ella deben ser aplicados sin demoras injustificadas y solo cabe pedir al exportador la información que sea necesaria para llevar a cabo este proceso.