Looking Back at US Pharmacy's Past to Help Discern Its Future.

Objective: To review specific literature that aimed to predict the future of US pharmacy, beginning in the late 1980s. Data Sources: Articles were identified from searching MEDLINE, CINAHL, Google Scholar, and references of relevant articles. The following combinations of search terms were used: future, pharmacy, prediction, and forecast. Study Selection and Data Extraction: The following inclusion criteria were applied: (1) full-text commentary, review, or original research and (2) focused predominantly on the pharmacy in the United States. Data on predictions for the future of pharmacy were extracted. Data Synthesis: We selected 3 articles published between 1988 and 2006, with each aiming to project the future for the following decade. We examined each prediction in light of the current knowledge. Relevance to Patient Care and Clinical Practice: Educators, practitioners, and other stakeholders should consider reflecting on the changes in pharmacy for the past 3 decades and applying both historical and emerging trends to improve patient care and sustain practice in the third decade of the 21st century and beyond. Conclusion: Most of the predictions for the future of pharmacy from the past 3 decades materialized, with some still in progress (reimbursement for pharmacy services), whereas others manifested in unexpected ways (transition from shortage to excess of pharmacists). Current forces shaping pharmacy include, but are not limited to, growing spending and use of specialty drugs, automation of pharmacy operations, growth of pharmacy in the digital health enterprise, and growing consumer interest in the use of analytical pharmacy that tests drugs before dispensing.

From Dispensaries to Community Health Centers: Health Delivery Change Across the Twentieth Century.

This piece examines the historical forces and forebears that preceded, and helped shape, community health centers. Though the current iteration of community health centers date from the 1960s, their (deeper) roots go back to the earliest years of the twentieth century. They began life as largely urban phenomena, and rode the wave of the larger program of Progressive-era political and socioeconomic reforms.

The impact of the Baltic Germans' emigration on the pharmaceutical sector in Latvia (1939-1940).

For several hundred years, the Baltic German families of pharmacists have been the decisive creator of traditions in Latvian pharmacy. A large amount of the oldest pharmacies in Latvia, especially in Riga, were owned by pharmacists of Baltic German origin. Many of these ancient pharmacies ceased to exist in 1939, as a result of the emigration of the Baltic Germans. The agreement on the outward migration of German nationality citizens between Latvia and Germany was signed October 30, 1939. According to the information of the Pharmacy Board of Latvia, the number of employees in the pharmaceutical sector, registered in 1939, was 2068 persons. During the first wave of emigration, at the end of the year 1939, 306 persons, related to pharmacy, renounced the Latvian citizenship and emigrated. During the second wave of emigration, in spring of 1941, when Latvia had already lost its political independence, another 49 pharmaceutic employees left Latvia. In total 355 employees emigrated to Germany. As a result of the Baltic German emigration there was a decreased number of pharmacies in Latvia and the lack of pharmacists became a local issue. In rural areas quite often the only one pharmacy, which had been owned by a German origin pharmacist was liquidated or stayed closed for several months.

[Simplicia and medical containers from the Jesuit pharmacy in Telc]. / Simplicia a nádoby jezuitské lékárny v Telci.

The Jesuit pharmacy in Telc was founded after 1657 within the premises of the Jesuit cloister; it survived the dissolution of Jesuits in 1773 and thanks to its purchase by the last pharmacist Ignac Lyro it was relocated to one of the houses in the square. During the stocktaking of the property and its sale, a detailed inventory of pharmacy equipment was recorded, including cabinets, laboratory tools, ingredients or drugs. The inventory is divided into parts of ingredients and prepared medications, the last lists recording the tools and containers for its preparation, production and preservation. The ingredients contain various parts of plants, minerals, precious stones or even parts of animals. The list is written mainly in the alphabetical order, in some cases with specified types of groups. Every item is provided with information about its price and quantity. Many ingredients originated from overseas countries, the areas of Jesuit missionary activities. Of the former rich equipment, only three pharmacy cabinets and a few containers, mainly veneer boxes and ceramic drug jars, have survived. All these parts together with the inventory give us a comparatively clear notion about the equipment and even facilities of the Jesuit apothecary in Telc, which sold items from different parts of the world. The Jesuit convent seems to be an important centre for town inhabitants not only in the 18th century; its legacy has remained in the local pharmacy till today.Key words: pharmacy Societas Jesus 18th century medications medical containers.

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the Second Part.

After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances. Thanks to the Turks, Arabic culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). Significant role in the transfer of Arabic pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arabic component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of B&H. The Franciscan monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina have museums which contain important exhibits and libraries rich in books, among which many from the field of medicine and pharmacy. Muslim mosques, also, had small libraries with Arabic books used for spreading medical knowledge. The second category was folk doctors and practitioners who were on disposition to the people of any religion. Some of them listened to lectures in medicine during the studies of theology and philosophy. However, most did not have any medical education, but by reading books and teaching experience they made their own recipe collection. Special books, called "Ljekaruse" (Books of recipes) were also born during the study when they came into contact with an even larger number of health books. However, it should not be neglected that a lot of them contained folk medicines that were used in some environments depending on the habits and available herbs. Although it has been proven that many recipes from Ljekaruse are pharmacologically and medically justified, one should not ignore the knowledge and skill behind them. The true flowering of medicine in B&H happening thanks to graduate doctors in Italy, Austria, Hungary, Turkey, etc. Through their action, in a short time, they greatly improved health in B&H, educated the population. The Franciscans were important because they opened the first open-air clinics, the first pharmacies, and wrote the first pharmacopoeia and regulations for the work of health care institutions. Numerous works preserved in monasteries have mostly brought about the study in only one or two copies. Their contribution to the development of health care and the prevention of illness and treatment of the population in B&H during that period is very significant.

[The pharmacist and deputy Henri Schmidt, the law voted in 1913 and said «for three years¼ and the position of mobilized pharmacists at the beginning of First World War].

Henri Schmidt was, with his fellow the senator Paul Cazeneuve, the main defender of the mention of pharmacists and pharmacy students in the articles of the law voted in 1913 for the recruitment of the army. After the description of their interventions to attain this end, and a short biography of these two politicians, the paper explains the activities of the pharmaceutical parliamentary group, during the early years of the war, in view to obtain the admittance in the medical corps of the pharmacists and students unprovided of rank, for the new creation of «auxiliary pharmacists¼, for the appointment as soon as possible of the maximum number of colleagues at this rank, and then for their promotion to the rank of «aide-major¼, resolution that appeared more difficult to obtain.

The pharmacy in Gersfeld/Rhoen and Veit Jakob Metz (1792-1866).

A "Privileg" for a pharmacy in Gersfeld (Rhoen) was issued October 26, 1788 by the ruler of Gersfeld, the Reichsfreiherr Amand von Ebersberg (1747- 1803), to Peter Franz Wilhelm Feuchter (1766-1835). Feuchter was not only a dedicated pharmacist but also scholarly active both by publishing and by serving on various journal editorial boards. Vitus Jacobus Metz (1792-1866) was accepted 1808 as an apprentice in the pharmacy and later enjoyed private lessons from Feuchter (until around 1813, when he gave up the study of pharmacy to pursue medical studies in Würzburg). This major decision was possibly influenced by Metz experiencing the outcome of a dispute between pharmacist Feuchter and the physician Andreas Laubreis (*1778), dispute with an outcome favoring the physician. As a physician Metz great achievement was to establish 1830 the Mariannen-Institut, the lying-in asylum in Aachen, Bendelstrasse, the first such institution in Germany. How revolutionary and way ahead of its time the Mariannen-Institut really was can only be understood considering that it took over half a century until a similar institution, the second one in Germany, opened in Düsseldorf. With this short contribution we attempt to shed some light on the life and family of Veit Jakob Metz from Römershag (Bad Brückenau) and on the Gersfeld pharmacy, the place that played such a major role in shaping his personality.

[[The apothecaries of the district of Les Halles in Paris in the 17th century. Molière's ancestors in Les Halles]. / Les apothicaires du quartier des Halles à Paris au XVIIe siècle. Les ascendants de Molière aux Halles.

Les Halles were created by King Louis VI at the begining of the 12th century as a central market for food and trade. Apothecaries conducted their trade there from that time. In the 17th century, eleven apothecaries were established in this district, bordered on the south by the rue Saint-Honoré, on the east by the rue Saint-Denis, on the west by the rue de la Tonnellerie, and the north by the rue Montmartre. Their biographies have been analysed, and the data that has been collected has enabled their précise location to be fixed on a map of 1700. Molière's ancestors, both maternal (the Cressé family) and paternal (the Pocquelin's), lived in this district. Details of their relationships with their apothecary neighbours have been revealed.

The apothecaries of the IIe de Ia Cite in Paris in the 17th century.

This article studies the location of the apothecaries living in the lie de Ia Cit~ between 1580 and the middle of the 7th century. In 1637, twelve apothecaries were living along the main commercial streets - Rue de La Juiverie, Rue de La Lanterne and Rue de La Calandre. Their biographies are studied.

Apothecaries and their clients in the State of Burgundy.

In 1477, the State of Burgundy from Charles the Bold comprised the Low Countries (including large parts of present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and northern France) as well as the duchy of Burgundy and the counties of Nevers and Burgundy. From 44 towns in the State of Burgundy, their apothecaries have been identified and based on studies on the population in European mediaeval towns, the number of inhabitants per apothecary (= the client-potential) could be established for the years 1400, 1440, 1480, 1520, 1560 and 1600. A distinction among small towns, medium sized and big towns has been made. In towns with less than 2500 inhabitants usually just one apothecary is present. Because of the limited number of potential clients - between 1000 and 2000 - it concerns often a town-apothecary (partly) paid by the magistrate and with additional privileges or a monopolized position. In towns with 5000-25000 inhabitants we see for the 16th century a tendency of a diminishing number of potential clients in time: this forms a strong indication for a growing degree of competition between the apothecaries in the bigger towns. A client-potential of 3500-4000 or higher allowed the apothecary in the territory of Burgundy to be commercially successful in the 15th and 16th century. The clients of the apothecary in this territory consisted of the three classes of the "Ancien Regime" with bishops, abbots, hospitals, churches, Seigniors, Counts, Dukes, courts of the crowned nobility, town magistrates, town garrisons, citizens, plague patients and the poor of the town.

[Rise and fall of Lactarium Linas]. / Grandeur et décadence du Lactarium Linas.

The pharmacist Gabriel Linas (1863-1951) founded in Versailles (France), in 1904, a model establishment: the "milk-bank Linas". This article discusses the history of this establishment and the judicial problems of its owner during the First World War.

[Portable pharmacies during the 19th century, starting from the example of Reichard' pharmacy in his guided for travelers in Europe (1805)]. / Les pharmacies portatives au XIXe siècle, à partir de l'exemple de celle de Reichard, Heinrich August Ottokar (1751-1828), dans son Guide des voyageurs en Europe en 1805.

The portable pharmacy of Reichard, in his 1805 Guide for travelers in Europe is an example among others of a growing determination to answer the needs of the people to have access to drugs even in absence of health care professionals. One can observe the ultimate result by looking at portable pharmacies offered for sale by companies such as Menier and Pharmacie Centrale de France, but also by individual pharmacists. In spite of favorable changes of health care in all countries during the XXe century, portable pharmacy and kits are still widely proposed for sale, on Internet for example, for frequent diseases, including for pets!

[The apothecaries of the quartier de la Harpe in Paris in the 16th and 17th centuries]. / Les apothicaires du quartier de la Harpe à Paris aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles.

Large families of apothecaries, some of them very famous, lived in the Quartier de la Harpe in Paris, on the left bank of Seine, from the 16th to the 17th century. The study confirms a well-established fact that apothecaries practised endogamy, in others words marriage within the same social class. The biographical research includes ten apothecaries, most of whom lived in the rue Saint-André-des-Arts.

[An apothecary from the Cévennes region on the rolls of Oriental Pyrenees Army in 1793]. / Un apothicaire cévenol dans l'Armée des Pyrénées-Orientales en 1793.

In 1793 during the french Revolution, the decret of February 23rd orders a big recruitment of 300 000 people. The city of Alès (Cevennes) has to supply ninety-seven soldiers to establish the battalion of the Gard. They will be allocated to the "Armée des Pyrénées-Orientales" (Army of the Eastern Pyrenees) which is going to defend the border with Spain. These armies have to face the influx of wounded persons but especially the devastation of the epidemics. Besides the soldiers, are enlisted the officers of health, the doctors, the surgeons and the pharmacists. So the city of Alès indicates to be of use to this army the youngest of the doctors, freshly honed of the university of Montpellier and two old pharmacists (51 y. and 61 y. old). They were allocated to the hospital of Narbonne where they worked to fight against the epidemics, in particular by the disinfection of rooms. The oldest of them succumbed to the disease. Two others, safe and sound income in their home town, played a notables' role.

[Of the pharmacy of Marine to the industrial pharmacy: a precursor of nanomedicines, André Lancien (1885-1938)]. / De la pharmacie de Marine à la pharmacie industrielle: un precurseur des nanomédicaments, André Lancien (1885-1938).

After a biographic reminder on André Lancien, pharmacist of Marine, we describe her activities of research. The first ones concern the radium and the uranic by-products, but the main part concerns the development of a process of obtaining by electric way of stable colloidal solutions to very fine metallic or metalloïdic particles. These colloids were applied to the therapeutics in diverse domains, prefiguring before the term existed what we call now nanomedicine.

The history of pharmacy studies in Croatia.

The first study of pharmacy on Croatian territory was founded in the early 19th century (1806-1813). Vicencio Dandolo (1758-1819), a pharmacist from Venice who was Napoleon's governor of Dalmatia, established a lyceum in Zadar in 1806. It included education for pharmacists. The Lyceum (later the Central School) was closed in 1811. The founding of the modern University of Zagreb (1874) and its Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences (1876) created the conditions for the development of university education for pharmacists. The study of pharmacy was introduced at the University of Zagreb in 1882 through the efforts of the Croatian-Slavonian Pharmaceutical Association and the professors of the Faculty of Philosophy. The study went through a series of reforms. The most significant one came with the introduction of the four-year study of pharmacy and the establishment of the Pharmacy Department of the Faculty of Philosophy (1928). The independent Faculty of Pharmacy (today's Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry) was founded at the University of Zagreb in 1942. Since 1989, it has had two separate studies (Pharmacy and Medical Biochemistry).

Pharmacy in Turkey: past, present, and future.

Pharmacy in Turkey underwent a radical change within the last decade. Introduction of the Health Transformation Program in 2003 has had a significant impact on Turkey's pharmacy system in accordance with objectives of the program to establish new pricing regulations for pharmaceuticals based on reference prices, and to develop better computer based health information/record systems. In this context, Pharmaceutical Tracking (Track-and-Trace) System using two dimensional matrix barcodes was initiated to prevent not only drug counterfeiting, but also fraud against the medical insurance system and off-record transactions within the pharmaceutical sector; and the process of recording prescriptions in an electronic format was launched. Some other improvements have also been made with respect to pharmacy education, law and practice. In contrast with all these positive outcomes, Turkish pharmacy sector is currently in a deep financial struggle. This paper aims to provide a brief overview of the recent developments in Turkish pharmacy system and to discuss future roles and challenges of the profession.

A short history of providing medical history within the British medical undergraduate curriculum.

This article aims to discuss the history of medical history in the British medical undergraduate curriculum and it reviews the main characters and organisations that have attempted to earn it a place in the curriculum. It also reviews the arguments for and against the study of the subject that have been used over the last 160 years.