Anatomy, Endocrine Regulation, and Embryonic Development of the Rete Testis.

Reproduction in males requires the transfer of spermatozoa from testis tubules via the rete system to the efferent ductules, epididymis, and vas deferens. The rete therefore forms an essential bridging system between the testis and excurrent ducts. Yet the embryonic origin and molecular regulation of rete testis development is poorly understood. This review examines the anatomy, endocrine control, and development of the mammalian rete testis, focusing on recent findings on its molecular regulation, identifying gaps in our knowledge, and identifying areas for future research. The rete testis develops in close association with Sertoli cells of the seminiferous cords, although unique molecular markers are sparce. Most recently, modern molecular approaches such as global RNA-seq have revealed the transcriptional signature of rete cell precursors, pointing to at least a partial common origin with Sertoli cells. In the mouse, genes involved in Sertoli cell development or maintenance, such as Sox9, Wt1, Sf1, and Dmrt1, are also expressed in cells of the rete system. Rete progenitor cells also express unique markers, such as Pax8, E-cadherin, and keratin 8. These must directly or indirectly regulate the physical joining of testis tubules to the efferent duct system and confer other physiological functions of the rete. The application of technologies such as single-cell RNA-seq will clarify the origin and developmental trajectory of this essential component of the male reproductive tract.

Lesions of the rete testis in mice exposed prenatally to diethylstilbestrol.

Adenocarcinoma of the rete testis is an exceptionally rare and malignant testicular neoplasm. Although treatment of pregnant women with diethylstilbestrol (DES) results in reproductive tract abnormalities in their male offspring, increased incidence of testicular tumors has not been verified. However, recently three cases of seminoma have been described in men prenatally exposed to DES, suggesting an association of prenatal DES treatment and the subsequent development of testicular tumors. This report describes the treatment of outbred pregnant CD-1 mice with DES (100 micrograms/kg) on Days 9 through 16 of gestation and its effects on their male offspring. In addition to nonmalignant abnormalities such as retained testes which have been reported in men exposed prenatally to DES, lesions resembling adenocarcinoma of the rete testis were seen in prenatally DES-treated mice at 10 to 18 mo of age (11 of 233; 5%). No comparable lesions were seen in 96 age-matched control male mice. These results suggest an association of prenatal DES exposure and the subsequent development of testicular lesions in the rete testis of mice.

Immunoexpression of aquaporin-1 in the efferent ducts of the rat and marmoset monkey during development, its modulation by estrogens, and its possible role in fluid resorption.

Recent data suggest that estrogens play a role in regulating fluid resorption from the efferent ducts, though the biochemical mechanisms involved are unknown. The present study has used immunocytochemistry to localize a water channel protein, Aquaporin-1 (AQP-1), to the efferent ducts of male rats and marmoset monkeys from perinatal life through to adulthood and has then investigated its potential hormonal regulation in neonatal/peripubertal life, via administration of a GnRH antagonist (GnRHa) or diethylstilbestrol (DES) to rats. AQP-1 was immunoexpressed intensely in the apical brush border of the epithelium lining the efferent ducts at all ages studied, from late fetal life through puberty to adulthood. In the marmoset, but not the rat, AQP-1 was also expressed in the epithelium of the rete testis. Once the cell types within the efferent duct epithelium had differentiated, it was clear that only nonciliated cells of the rat localized AQP-1. When gonadotropin secretion was suppressed in rats by neonatal administration of GnRHa, immunoexpression of AQP-1 at age 18 and 25 days was virtually unchanged in intensity, though the efferent ducts were reduced in size. In contrast, when DES was administered neonatally to rats (up to day 12), immunoexpression of AQP-1 was reduced at day 10, virtually abolished at day 18, reduced markedly at day 25 and to a small extent at day 35; these findings were confirmed by Western blot analysis at day 18. The DES-induced decrease in immunoexpression of AQP-1 was accompanied by pronounced distension of the efferent ducts and rete, consistent with reduced fluid resorption. The epithelial cells of the efferent ducts in DES-treated rats were cuboidal rather than columnar in shape as in controls and were reduced significantly in height compared with controls at all ages through to adulthood. These findings suggest that estrogens may play a role in regulating fluid resorption from the efferent ducts during fetal/neonatal development and/or a role in the gross and functional development of the efferent ducts and rete testis. The present data also suggest that AQP-1 is one of the elements involved in the regulation of fluid resorption in the efferent ducts. The importance of fluid flow in fetal/neonatal development of the excurrent duct system of the male is also suggested by these observations.

The antiestrogen ICI 182,780 induces early effects on the adult male mouse reproductive tract and long-term decreased fertility without testicular atrophy.

BACKGROUND: Estrogen receptors (ER) have important physiological roles in both the female and male reproductive systems. Previous studies using the estrogen receptor-alpha knockout mouse (alphaERKO) or antiestrogen treatment in adult rodents have shown that ERalpha is essential for normal function of the male reproductive tract. In the present study, time-response effects of the antiestrogen ICI 182,780 were determined to better understand ERalpha function in the adult male. METHODS: Adult male mice, 30 days old, were injected subcutaneously with ICI 182,780 (5 mg) once per week for 17 weeks. Tissues were fixed by vascular perfusion to study the time responses from day 2 to 125 post treatment. RESULTS: No difference was seen in body weight due to treatment. Testis weight was decreased 18% on day 59 and 21.4% on day 125. Other significant treatment-related effects included the following: 1) dilation of rete testis and efferent ductule lumen; 2) decreased height of the rete testis and efferent ductule epithelium; 3) decreased height of the supranuclear epithelial cytoplasm in efferent ductules; 4) decreased height of the efferent ductule epithelial microvilli, particularly in the proximal ductules; 5) decrease in the PAS-positive granules and endocytotic vesicles in nonciliated epithelial cells of efferent ductules; 6) capping and vesiculation of narrow cells in the initial segment of the epididymis; 7) accumulation of PAS-positive granules in apical cells of the caput epididymis; 8) increase in lysosomal granules in clear cells of the corpus and cauda epididymis; 9) limited induction of atrophic seminiferous tubules and abnormal spermatogenesis; and 10) decreases in the concentration of cauda sperm, progressive sperm motility and decreased fertility. CONCLUSIONS: Antiestrogen treatment of the pubertal male mouse resulted in reproductive effects similar to those observed in the alphaERKO mouse as early as day 4; however, testis weight did not increase substantially and total atrophy was not observed with extended treatment.

Effects of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone on spermatogenesis, rete testis fluid, and peripheral androgen levels in hypophysectomized rats.

To compare the effects of testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) on the maintenance and the restoration of spermatogenesis, hypophysectomized (APX) rats were treated daily for 35 days with 0.5 mg of T propionate (TP) or DHT propionate (DHTP) beginning 5 or 33 days after hypophysectomy. In the maintenance experiment, the weights of the testes and the number of early spermatids were significantly lower in DHTP-than in TP-treated animals, while late spermatids were present only in rats treated with TP. In the restoration experiment, TP increased testicular weight and the number of germinal cells, whereas DHTP had very little effect on the testis. In an attempt to explain these findings, we measured androgen levels in the rete testis fluid (RTF) and peripheral plasma of APX rats treated with TP or DHTP. The concentration of T in the RTF of TP-treated rats was nearly 3-fold higher than the level of DHT in the RTF of animals given DHTP. Plasma T levels measured 1/2, 2, 4, and 24 hours after the last of three daily injections of TP were considerably higher than were the corresponding plasma DHT levels in animals given DHTP. In animals treated with free steroids, peripheral androgen levels between 1/2 and 4 hours after the last injection were much higher in rats given T than in those given DHT, but thereafter this difference disappeared. We conclude that the difference in the ability of subcutaneously injected TP and DHTP to maintain and to restore spermatogenesis in APX rats was due to a difference in androgen levels in the testes of these animals.

The correlation between the gossypol contents in blood plasma, rete testis fluid, and cauda epididymal fluid following chronic treatment with gossypol in rats.

Concentrations of gossypol in blood plasma, rete testis fluid, and fluid from the caudia epididymidis were measured simultaneously by high performance liquid chromatography in rats treated with gossypol (15 mg/kg daily for 3 weeks). Antispermatogenic effects were demonstrated by loss of sperm motility in the cauda epididymidis and structural changes in the testis. It was found in these treated rats that concentrations of gossypol were lower in rete testis fluid compared with blood plasma but increased significantly in fluid from the cauda epididymidis. The results indicate a restriction of the blood-testis barrier to gossypol and its local concentration in the epididymis after fluid resorption.

[Development of the rete testis in the prenatal ontogeny of rodents and effect of prolactin and thyrotropin on its cellular differentiation]. / Razvitie seti semennika v prenatal'nom ontogeneze nekotorykh gryzunov i vliianie prolaktina i tirotropina na differentsirovku ee kletok.

The development of rete testis in the rat, rabbit and guinea pig foetuses has been studied, as well as the influence of prolactin and thyrotropin on differentiation of its cells. It was shown that the rete testis tubules, as well as the seminiferous tubules develop from sex cords, which were derived from coelomic epithelium cells and gonocytes. The development of seminiferous tubules and rete testis was described at various stages of prenatal ontogenesis. Thyrotropin and prolactin exert different effects on differentiation of the rete testis cells: the former increases the mitotic activity of gonocytes and the latter increases that of epithelial cells and enhances degenerative processes in primary germ cells.

Pharmacokinetic and adaptation factors involved in testicular toxicity.

In the male gonads, factors that modify toxicity include the pharmacokinetic parameters governing the absorption, distribution, activation, and detoxication of toxicants; covalent binding to macromolecules; and DNA damage as well as DNA repair of damaged germ cells. All of these factors are being studied in our laboratory at the present time. The male germ cells are protected by a biological barrier comparable to that which retards the penetration of chemicals to the brain; permeability constants for the two are nearly identical. Toxication and detoxication processes are present in both the seminferous tubule and interstitial cellular compartments. The balance of toxication-detoxication processes apparently favors the germ cells; detoxication reactions are relatively more abundant in the seminiferous tubules. Unscheduled DNA repair has been shown in spermatogonia and spermatocytes; spermatids and sperm lack DNA repair capability. The DNA repair capacity associated with spermatogenic cells appears to be dose-dependent and saturable. Understanding the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the blood-testis barrier, toxication and detoxication mechanisms as well as DNA repair systems in male gonads will allow a better understanding of species comparison and reproductive and genetic toxicity. This understanding will also increase the reliability of extrapolating laboratory animal data to man and estimating human risk.

Neonatal exposure of male rats to estradiol benzoate causes rete testis dilation and backflow impairment of spermatogenesis.

Estrogens administered to perinatal rodents cause spermatogenesis impairment; this study was undertaken to determine the mechanisms by which estrogens exert this effect. Neonatal male Wistar rats received estradiol benzoate (either 0.5 mg/5g BW or 1 mg/5g BW) and were killed at days 10, 22, 33, 45, and 60. Controls received vehicle. In tubule cross-sections of transverse sections of the right testes, 1) tubular diameter (TD) and seminiferous epithelium height (SEH) were measured, 2) normal and impaired spermatogenesis were classified in terms of the most advanced germ cell type present, including tubules lined by Sertoli cells only. A significant dose-dependent rise in the tubule percentage lined by Sertoli cells only at day 60 reflected spermatogenesis impairment. This was evidenced by the presence of multinucleated germ cells in a thin epithelium and sloughed into an enlarged tubular lumen, which was reflected in a significant dose-dependent increase in TD/SEH values from day 22 onward. TD was significantly greater and SEH significantly lower in tubular segments located at the cranial than the caudal halves of rat testes treated with the high (days 22, 33, and 60) and the low dose (day 33). This indicated distension in cranial tubular segments, perhaps due to the fact that these segments were the closest to the dilated rete testis. Consequently, they showed the highest TD/SEH values and the most regressive features of spermatogenesis (tubules lined by Sertoli cells only). In contrast, caudal segments in rat testes treated with the low dose showing TD/SEH values similar to controls displayed a delayed maturation of spermatogenesis coinciding with the late appearance of mature Leydig cells.

Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on inhibin release by different testicular compartments in the adult ram.

The aim of this study was to determine the bidirectional release of immunoreactive inhibin-alpha (irINH-alpha) by different testicular compartments in the adult ram and to assess the effects of FSH on the distribution of inhibin in the testis. Immunoreactive INH-alpha was measured by RIA in fluid samples collected concurrently from the three testicular compartments--the seminiferous tubules, the interstitium, and the vascular system--through catheters inserted surgically into the rete testis, testicular lymphatic duct system, and spermatic veins, respectively. Overall, the concentration of irINH-alpha in rete testis fluid was 25 times the level in testicular lymph and over 500 times the concentration in peripheral blood. The pattern of irINH-alpha concentration in rete testis fluid was inversely related to that in testicular lymph, but i.v. administration of FSH had a decoupling effect on this relationship by depressing inhibin concentration in testicular lymph without affecting inhibin levels in rete testis fluid. Nevertheless, increased flow of testicular lymph more than compensated for the transient fall in irINH-alpha concentration so that, overall, the total output of inhibin via the testicular lymphatic duct system (and the vascular system) increased significantly. No persistent or significant changes were observed in the flow rate of rete testis fluid or concentration of irINH-alpha in the fluid after administration of FSH. The time frame for the response of the testis to FSH is indicative of the involvement of a mediator. Electrophoretic analysis of serially collected testicular lymph samples consistently revealed an FSH-induced release of a series of proteins in the M(r) range of 30,000-32,000.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Interactions between ovine cathepsin L, cystatin C and alpha 2-macroglobulin. Potential role in the genital tract.

The specific inhibitor of cysteine proteinases, cystatin C, was purified from ram rete testis fluid and the conditioned medium of Sertoli cells. This molecule associated with sheep liver cathepsin L at one of the fastest rates ever described for a proteinase/inhibitor interaction (1.75 +/- 0.20 x 10(8) M-1.s-1). But the association rate constant for the interaction of cathepsin L with alpha 2-macroglobulin, a non-specific inhibitor of proteinases, was also extremely high (8.8 +/- 0.75 x 10(6) M-1.s-1). Cathepsin L complexed with alpha 2-macroglobulin was protected from inhibition by type 2 and type 3 cystatins. The data indicate that cystatin C is the most potent inhibitor of cathepsin L in mammalian male genital tract fluids, whereas alpha 2-macroglobulin may act as a terminal acceptor of this enzyme. These inhibitors could therefore inhibit the activated form of procathepsin L which may appear during the complex process of spermatozoa production and maturation in the testis and epididymis.

Proliferative lesions and reproductive tract tumors in male descendants of mice exposed developmentally to diethylstilbestrol.

Prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) is associated with reproductive tract abnormalities, subfertility and neoplasia in experimental animals and humans. Studies using experimental animals suggest that the carcinogenic effects of DES may be transmitted to succeeding generations. To further evaluate this possibility and to determine if there is a sensitive window of exposure, outbred CD-1 mice were treated with DES during three developmental stages: group 1 was treated on days 9-16 of gestation (2.5, 5 or 10 microg/kg maternal body weight) during major organogenesis; group II was treated once on day 18 of gestation (1000 microg/kg maternal body weight) just prior to birth; and group III was treated on days 1-5 of neonatal life (0.002 microg/pup/day). DES-exposed female mice (F(1)) were raised to maturity and bred to control males to generate DES-lineage (F(2)) descendants. The F(2) males obtained from these matings are the subjects of this report; results in F(2) females have been reported previously [Newbold et al. (1998) CARCINOGENESIS:, 19, 1655-1663]. Reproductive performance of F(2) males when bred to control females was not different from control males. However, in DES F(2) males killed at 17-24 months, an increased incidence of proliferative lesions of the rete testis and tumors of the reproductive tract was observed. Since these increases were seen in all DES treatment groups, all exposure periods were considered susceptible to perturbation by DES. These data suggest that, while fertility of the DES F(2) mice appeared unaltered, increased susceptibility for tumors is transmitted from the DES 'grandmothers' to subsequent generations.