The influence of incontinence pads moisture at the loaded skin interface.

AIM: Prolonged mechanical loading on soft tissues adjacent to bony prominences can lead to pressure ulcers. The presence of moisture at the skin interface will lower the tolerance to load. Absorbent pads manage moisture in individuals with incontinence, although their role in maintaining skin health is unknown. The present study investigated the effects of moist incontinence pads on skin physiology after periods of mechanical loading. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twelve healthy participants were recruited to evaluate a single incontinence pad design under three moisture conditions: 0% (dry), 50% and 100% fluid capacity. For each pad condition, pressure (9 kPa) or pressure in combination with shear (3 N) was applied to the sacrum, followed by a period of off-loading. Measures included trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL) and inflammatory biomarkers sampled at the skin interface. RESULTS: Results revealed no change in TEWL in the loaded dry pad condition. By contrast, when the pads contained moisture, significant increases in TEWL were observed. These increases were reversed during off-loading. Inflammatory biomarkers, specifically IL-1α/total protein ratio, were up-regulated during dry pad loading, which recovered during off-loading. Loaded moist pads caused a significant increase in biomarkers, which remained elevated throughout the test period. CONCLUSION: The study revealed a marked compromise to stratum corneum integrity when the skin was exposed to moist incontinence pads in combination with mechanical loads. These physiological changes were largely reversed during off-loading. Incontinence pads provided some protection in the dry state, although more research is required to determine optimal clinical guidance for their use.

The Impact of Microclimate on Skin Health With Absorbent Incontinence Product Use: An Integrative Review.

This integrative review considers the role of skin occlusion and microclimate in incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD), with a particular focus on disposable, body-worn, absorbent incontinence products. Although the mechanisms are not fully understood, the primary causes of IAD are well-established: occluded skin, in prolonged contact with urine and/or feces and exposed to abrasive forces, is more likely to be affected, and each of these factors can be influenced by wearing absorbent incontinence products. Studies comparing the effect of various absorbent products on skin health have been hindered by the many differences between compared products, making it difficult to clearly attribute any differences in performance to particular materials or design features. Nevertheless, the large and significant differences that have sometimes been found invite further work. Breathable back sheets can significantly reduce the temperature of occluded skin and the humidity of the adjacent air, and several treatments for nonwoven top sheet materials (used next to the skin) have been shown to impart antimicrobial properties in the laboratory, but an impact on IAD incidence or severity has yet to be demonstrated directly. Recent work to introduce sensing technology into absorbent incontinence products to reduce the exposure of skin to urine and feces, by encouraging prompt product changing, seems likely to yield measurable benefits in terms of reducing incidents of IAD as the technology develops. Published work to date suggests that there is considerable potential for products to be engineered to play a significant role in the reduction of IAD among users.

Incontinence, Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis, and Pressure Injuries in a Health District in Australia: A Mixed-Methods Study.

PURPOSE: This purpose of this study was to measure the prevalence of incontinence, incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD), and pressure injuries (PIs) in a local health district in Australia. We also aimed to determine associated evidence-into-practice gaps. DESIGN: Multisite mixed-methods study. SUBJECTS AND SETTINGS: The sample comprised 250 adult patients in 12 units across 4 hospitals; their mean age was 73 years. Nurses caring for the patient at the time of the audit were questioned on nursing practice for patients with incontinence. METHODS: A 2-page audit tool was developed and used to capture demographic data, continence and mobility status, IAD and PI, incontinence products, nursing practice observations, and nurses' comments. Each patient was assessed by 2 senior nurses. Quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis using a χ test to examine the association between mobility and incontinence and a Fisher exact test to examine the association between IAD and PI. Content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data and develop themes. RESULTS: Almost half of patients had incontinence (n = 111/250), 20.7% of patients with incontinence (n = 23/111) had IAD, and 6.3% (n = 7/111) had hospital-acquired PI. There was a significant association between incontinence and mobility, and between IAD and PIs. In addition, 22.3% of patients who were continent (31/139) were wearing an incontinence product. Analysis of qualitative data found that both incontinence management and language used to refer to incontinence pads were incompatible with current best practices. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of incontinence among patients observed in this study was similar to rates reported internationally, but the prevalence of IAD was slightly lower. The association between IAD and PIs, as well as incontinence and mobility, was statistically and clinically significant. Nurses commonly used interventions with little or no evidence. Hospitals should put measures in place to improve nurses' knowledge of incontinence, IAD, and PI practices.

[Absorbent products for urinary incontinence management]. / Place des protections dans la prise en charge de l'incontinence urinaire.

INTRODUCTION: Despite therapeutic strategies of female and male urinary incontinence (UI) are currently well defined, there is no precise indication of the real place or strategy use of absorbent products regardless of the etiology of the incontinence or the clinical context. METHODS: We performed a research from the PubMed database using the following keywords: (urinary incontinence [MESH Terms]) AND absorbent pad [MeSH Terms]; allowing us to isolate 362 articles. RESULTS: Many protections designs are available over-the-counter without prescription and without reimbursement in France. For "light UI", disposable insert pads are the design that seems to be the most suitable for women, compared to disposable menstrual pads, OR=0.27 [0.14, 0.52], washable pants with integral pad OR=0.12 [0.06, 0.26] or washable insert pads OR=0.05 [0.02, 0.26]. For moderate to severe UI, there is no "best universal product". There are differences between the gender and the use of a panel of protections seems the most appropriate. Both women and men prefer pull-ups to disposable insert pads, OR=0.41 [0.20, 0.87] and OR=0.39 [0.22, 0.68] respectively. In men, a preference in 70 % of subjects for urisheats is observed compared to the protections they usually use (P=0.02). The use of protections improves independence in daily OR activities=0.102 [0.046, 0.158] and quality of life related to UI OR=4.40 [1.74, 7.07] compared to patients not using protections. Despite this, their use must remain cautious because of the potential infectious urinary complications, more frequent in particular in institutional people, with 41 % of users developing at least one urinary infection over an evaluation period of 12 months vs. 11 % of non-users (P=0.001), or immuno-allergic with the "dermatitis associated incontinence" whose prevalence can reach a rate of 50 %. CONCLUSION: Comparative analyzes of risk-benefit, economic costs, patient satisfaction, protections vs. other measures are lacking. It is necessary to continue the development of these products and to compare more precisely their intrinsic characteristics, to best support patients choices.

Disposable Versus Reusable Absorbent Underpads for Prevention of Hospital-Acquired Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis and Pressure Injuries.

PURPOSE: The primary purpose of our study was to determine if there is a difference in the occurrence of hospital-acquired pressure injuries (HAPIs) and incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD) in incontinent adults using a disposable versus reusable absorptive underpads. We also compared hospital length of stay in the 2 groups. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial using cluster randomization based on inpatient care unit. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: Four hundred sixty-two patients admitted to 4 medical-surgical study units participated in the study; 252 used reusable underpads (control group) and 210 subjects used disposable underpads (intervention group). The study setting was a 711-bed acute care hospital located in Brooklyn, New York. METHODS: Two units were randomly allocated to use disposable incontinence pads, and the remaining 2 units used standard, reusable incontinence pads. Data for PI and IAD occurrences were collected weekly by specially trained RNs (skin care champions) on the assigned units. A 2-level hierarchical linear model was used to analyze the effects of the intervention on primary and secondary outcomes separately from any effects of the unit of randomization. RESULTS: HAPIs were significantly lower in the disposable underpads group: 5% versus 12% (P = .02). Rates of hospital IAD were not significantly different between the groups (P = .22). Analysis of a secondary outcome, hospital length of stay, was also lower in patients who used disposable underpads (6 days vs 8 days; P = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that use of disposable incontinence pads reduces HAPI but not IAD occurrences. The effect of disposable, absorbent incontinence pads should be considered when initiating a hospital-wide skin and PI prevention and treatment plan.

Effect of a 1-Piece Drainable Pouch on Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis in Intensive Care Unit Patients With Fecal Incontinence: A Comparison Cohort Study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of a 1-piece drainable pouch to standard care on occurrences of incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD) in intensive care unit (ICU) patients with fecal incontinence (FI). DESIGN: Nonrandomized comparison cohort (quasi-experimental) study. METHODS: Sixty-two bedridden patients with FI and indwelling urinary catheters in the ICU of the Shunde Hospital, Southern Medical University, Foshan, China, participated in the study. Thirty-one were assigned to the control group (standard IAD preventive care alone) and 31 to the intervention group (standard IAD preventive care plus application of a 1-piece drainable pouch). Stool consistency was evaluated via the Bristol Stool Scale. Trained nurses assessed the status of IAD using the Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis Intervention Tool. The incidence of IAD and the perianal skin status were investigated over a 7-day period. RESULTS: Participants in the experimental group had fewer IAD occurrences than participants in the control group (12.9% vs 41.9%, P < .05). Occurrences of IAD in the perianal were also significantly lower in the experimental group than in the control group (χ = 7.884, P < .05). CONCLUSION: Applying a 1-piece drainable pouch may reduce occurrences of IAD in ICU patients with FI compared with the patients receiving standard IAD preventive care.

Identification of Key Odorants in Used Disposable Absorbent Incontinence Products.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to identify key odorants in used disposable absorbent incontinence products. DESIGN: Descriptive in vitro study SUBJECTS AND SETTING:: Samples of used incontinence products were collected from 8 residents with urinary incontinence living in geriatric nursing homes in the Gothenburg area of Sweden. Products were chosen from a larger set of products that had previously been characterized by descriptive odor analysis. METHODS: Pieces of the used incontinence products were cut from the wet area, placed in glass bottles, and kept frozen until dynamic headspace sampling of volatile compounds was completed. Gas chromatography-olfactometry was used to identify which compounds contributed most to the odors in the samples. Compounds were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Twenty-eight volatiles were found to be key odorants in the used incontinence products. Twenty-six were successfully identified. They belonged to the following classes of chemical compounds: aldehydes (6); amines (1); aromatics (3); isothiocyanates (1); heterocyclics (2); ketones (6); sulfur compounds (6); and terpenes (1). CONCLUSION: Nine of the 28 key odorants were considered to be of particular importance to the odor of the used incontinence products: 3-methylbutanal, trimethylamine, cresol, guaiacol, 4,5-dimethylthiazole-S-oxide, diacetyl, dimethyl trisulfide, 5-methylthio-4-penten-2-ol, and an unidentified compound.

Incontinence Briefs Containing Spiral-Shaped Fiber Acidify Skin pH of Older Nursing Home Residents at Risk for Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis.

PURPOSE: The study's purpose was to assess the pH of the skin of older (aged ≥75 years) incontinent nursing home residents after exposure to an incontinence brief containing spiral-shaped fiber wet with an alkaline solution mimicking urine or fecal pH and compared to skin pH after exposure to an industry standard brief wet with the same solution and various controls. DESIGN: The design was experimental, as conditions were applied to skin and skin pH was measured in random order, and subjects served as their own controls. SETTING AND SUBJECTS: The setting was a Midwestern nonprofit nursing home. The sample was 26 nursing home residents; their mean age was 87 years (SD = 6 years); 77% were female. Most (69%) had urinary incontinence alone, and 31% had dual urinary and fecal incontinence. METHODS: Skin pH was measured in duplicate on 6 areas of the inner thighs and 6 areas of the volar surface of the forearms. Each area was exposed to 1 of 6 conditions applied in random order: an incontinence brief containing spiral-shaped fiber wet with an alkaline solution and one that was dry; a standard incontinence brief (without spiral-shaped fiber) wet with the same alkaline solution and one that was dry; the alkaline solution alone; and normal skin. RESULTS: On both the thighs and the forearms, skin pH was significantly lower (more acidic) after exposure to the incontinence brief containing spiral-shaped fiber wet with an alkaline solution compared to the wet standard brief and all other control conditions (P < .001). On thighs, the mean skin pH was 5.7 (SD = 0.5) after exposure to the wet brief with spiral-shaped fiber versus 6.4 (SD = 0.5) after exposure to the wet standard brief. On forearms, the mean skin pH was 5.3 (SD = 0.4) after exposure to the wet brief with spiral-shaped fiber versus 6.0 (SD = 0.4) after exposure to the wet standard brief. CONCLUSIONS: Incontinence briefs containing a spiral-shaped fiber significantly acidify the pH of the skin exposed to an alkaline solution, while industry standard briefs do not. Since alkaline skin pH is a risk factor for incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD), results suggest that briefs with spiral-shaped fiber may help prevent IAD. Findings encourage further research.

A simulation comparing the cost-effectiveness of adult incontinence products.

PURPOSE: To compare leak point volumes and cost-effectiveness of a variety of adult incontinence products. METHODS: Adult incontinence products were purchased from local retail stores and categorized into moderate absorbency pads, moderate absorbency briefs, maximum absorbency pads, and maximum absorbent briefs. The leak point for each product was determined by applying fluid to the pad until the first drop of leakage from the pad or brief occurred. Cost-effectiveness was calculated by dividing the cost per product by the amount of fluid absorbed prior to the leak point. The leak points and cost-effectiveness of incontinence products were compared within and between categories. RESULTS: Significant differences in leak point volumes were present within all product categories except moderate absorbency pads. When comparing product categories, moderate absorbency pads were the least cost-effective, followed by maximum absorbency pads and absorbent briefs (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: As a group, absorbent briefs are more cost-effective than incontinence pads, although products of similar absorbency category and design demonstrated varying leak points and cost-effectiveness. These findings may influence physician assessment of urinary incontinence as well as patient selection of incontinence products.

Does patient activity level affect 24-hr pad test results in stress-incontinent women?

AIM: Standardization of the 24-hr pad test procedure would increase its validity as an objective measure of urinary incontinence. Our aim was to establish whether patient activity levels affect pad test results in stress-incontinent women, and if so, to develop a standard activity level during the testing period. METHODS: In this prospective observational study, 25 women with pure stress urinary incontinence (SUI) completed two 24-hr pad tests and documented their daily activities during a "normally active" and "minimally active" day. Activity level was compared with pad weight gain and the number of leakage episodes due to activity according to a patient activity diary (diarized activity leakage episodes) using non-parametric tests. RESULTS: There was a significant difference between the "normally active" and "minimally active" days for median pad weight gain (9.9 g vs. 5.2 g, P < 0.05) and diarized activity leakage episodes (2 vs. 1, P < 0.05). When the days were re-categorized, there was a significant difference between "mild activity" and "moderate activity" days for median pad weight gain (4.85 g vs. 7.1 g, P < 0.05) and diarized activity leakage episodes (0 vs. 2, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Increased patient activity levels increase the degree of leakage as measured by 24-hr pad weight gain therefore patients with SUI should perform the 24-hr pad test with standardized activity instructions. In scientific research, we recommend that women perform minimal physical activity, as this decreases the variation of activity. This approach will enhance the function of the 24-hr pad test as a severity measure between patients with SUI.

Improving diaper design to address incontinence associated dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Incontinence associated dermatitis (IAD) is an inflammatory skin disease mainly triggered by prolonged skin contact with urine, feces but also liberal detergent use when cleansing the skin. To minimize the epidermal barrier challenge we optimized the design of adult incontinence briefs. In the fluid absorption area we interposed a special type of acidic, curled-type of cellulose between the top sheet in contact with the skin and the absorption core beneath containing the polyacrylate superabsorber. The intention was to minimize disturbance of the already weak acid mantle of aged skin. We also employed air-permeable side panels to minimize skin occlusion and swelling of the stratum corneum. METHODS: The surface pH of diapers was measured after repeated wetting with a urine substitute fluid at the level of the top sheet. Occlusive effects and hydration of the stratum corneum were measured after a 4 hour application of different side panel materials by corneometry on human volunteers. Finally, we evaluated skin symptoms in 12 patients with preexisting IAD for 21 days following the institutional switch to the optimized diaper design. Local skin care protocols remained in place unchanged. RESULTS: The improved design created a surface pH of 4.6 which was stable even after repeated wetting throughout a 5 hour period. The "standard design" briefs had values of 7.1, which is alkaline compared to the acidic surface of normal skin. Side panels made from non-woven material with an air-permeability of more than 1200 l/m2/s avoided excessive hydration of the stratum corneum when compared to the commonly employed air-impermeable plastic films. Resolution of pre-existing IAD skin lesions was noted in 8 out of 12 patients after the switch to the optimized brief design. CONCLUSIONS: An improved design of adult-type briefs can create an acidic pH on the surface and breathable side panels avoid over-hydration of the stratum corneum and occlusion. This may support the epidermal barrier function and may help to reduce the occurrence of IAD.

Smart diapers for nursing home residents with dementia: a pilot study.

Objectives: The objective of the study is to evaluate the use of an experimental smart diaper as an indicator of saturation for diaper change in persons with dementia living in nursing homes. Methods: A multicenter prospective study was conducted in 3 nursing homes amongst 18 residents with dementia. For each resident, a frequency-volume urine chart (FVUC) was kept for 24 h including voided volume and diaper weights, wearing smart diapers. A comparative study was set up between results obtained by smart diapers and data registered in FVUCs. Results: Analysis based on quantification of the agreement between saturation calculated by smart diaper and determined by FVUC indicates that measurements reported by sensor do not correspond with measurements based on FVUC. For the regular diaper, the saturation measured by sensor may be 26% below or 39% above saturation based on FVUC and for the super diaper, respectively, 34% below or 30% above. Discussion: This study indicates that the sensor detects and notifies wetness but is not sensitive enough for using it as an indicator for diaper change in people with severe dementia.

National audit of continence care for older people: management of urinary incontinence.

INTRODUCTION: the Department of Health report 'Good practice in continence services' highlights the need for proper assessment and management of urinary incontinence. The National Service Framework for Older People required service providers to establish integrated continence services by April 2004. A national audit was conducted to assess the quality of continence care for older people and whether these requirements have been met. METHOD: the audit studied incontinent individuals of 65 years and over. Each site returned data on organisational structure and the process of 20 patients' care. Data were submitted via the internet, and all were anonymous. RESULTS: the national audit was conducted across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Data on the care of patients/residents with bladder problems were returned by 141/326 (43%) of primary care trusts (PCT), by 159/196 (81%) of secondary care trusts (involving 198 hospitals) and by 29/309 (9%) of invited care homes. In all 58% of PCT, 48% of hospitals and 74% of care homes reported that integrated continence services existed in their area. Whilst basic provision of care appeared to be in place, the audit identified deficiencies in the organisation of services, and in the assessment and management of urinary incontinence in the elderly. CONCLUSION: the results of this audit indicate that the requirement for integrated continence services has not yet been met. Assessment and care by professionals directly looking after the older person were often lacking. There is an urgent need to re-establish the fundamentals of continence care into the practice of medical and nursing staff and action needs to be taken with regard to the establishment of truly integrated, quality services in this neglected area of practice.

A critical investigation of ISO 11948-2 and ISO 11948-1 for predicting the leakage performance of small disposable incontinence pads for lightly incontinent women.

ISO 11948-2--an international standard laboratory method developed to predict the leakage performance of small disposable pads for lightly incontinent women--was investigated. The repeatability and reproducibility (precision within and between laboratories, respectively) of two variants on the method were found to be poor. The coefficient of variation for each method variant in each laboratory (two laboratories ran each variant) was higher than 40% for about half the 12 products evaluated. Results differed by up to 94% between laboratories for a given product. The ability of the method to predict the leakage performance of pads was investigated by measuring correlations between the clinical evaluations of the 12 products, and technical evaluations using ISO 11948-2. Correlations were very weak (r < or= 0.487). Accordingly, it is recommended that 11948-2 is withdrawn. A second international standard method (ISO 11948-1)--developed for evaluating large pads, but sometimes used on small ones--was also investigated. Correlations between the clinical evaluations of the 12 products and technical evaluations using ISO 11948-1 were weak (r < or = 0.560). Accordingly, it is recommended that ISO 11948-1 is not used for evaluating small disposable bodyworn pads for women.

An investigation of the repeatability and reproducibility of ISO 11948-1 (the Rothwell method) for measuring the absorption capacity of incontinence pads.

The repeatability and reproducibility (precision within and between laboratories, respectively) of an international standard method (ISO 11948-1, the Rothwell method) for measuring the absorption capacity of incontinence pads was investigated. The 74 shaped disposable bodyworn insert pads for heavy incontinence on the UK market in spring 1997 were tested in three laboratories experienced in using the method, one in each of England, Spain and Sweden. Coefficients of variation (standard deviation as a proportion of the mean) for five repeats rarely exceeded 5% within any laboratory. However, there were systematic differences between laboratories: results from the Swedish and Spanish laboratories typically exceeded those from the English laboratory by 13% and 8%, respectively. The good repeatability suggests that the method is capable of adequate precision but the poor reproducibility implies that the instructions in the standard for building and/or using the test apparatus are inadequate, leaving too much room for interpretation. Having studied the data presented here and viewed videos of the apparatus in use in five laboratories (including the three contributing to this note) the ISO working group which wrote the original standard has identified several likely sources of imprecision and is now working to revise the standard to improve its reproducibility.

Predicting the leakage performance of small bodyworn disposable incontinence pads using laboratory tests.

An international multi-centre project has been run to create an international standard for measuring the leakage performance of small, disposable incontinence pads for lightly incontinent women. One hundred and thirteen women tested batches of nine different incontinence pads of widely differing designs and noted the severity with which each individual used pad had leaked so that leakage performance could be determined as a function of urine weight. In addition, testers rated the overall leakage performance of each of the nine products on a five-point scale. These clinical data were compared with laboratory data from 153 different pad measurements, each of which was evaluated by seeing how well the data it yielded correlated with the clinical test data. A wetback test emerged as the clear winner. It usually predicted the clinical leakage performance of pads to an accuracy of +/- 10%. It involved applying 25 ml of 1% w/v saline to a pad and measuring how much escaped into a filter paper held against the wet pad for 1 min under a pressure of 1.5 kPa. Pads which released the least test fluid into the filter paper leaked least in the user tests. The method will be published as an ISO standard during 1997.

How well does ISO 11948-1 (the Rothwell method) for measuring the absorption capacity of incontinence pads in the laboratory correlate with clinical pad performance.

The ability of ISO 11948-1 (the Rothwell method) to predict the leakage performance of disposable bodyworn pads for heavy urinary incontinence was investigated by measuring correlations between models based on clinical evaluations of 138 diapers and inserts (the two major design categories), and technical models based on their Rothwell absorption capacities and design features. Correlations were poorer than in the original 1993 study for the standard (r < or =0.87 compared with r < or =0.95), but still strong enough to help with purchasing choices. For a given Rothwell capacity, the leakage performance of diapers was far superior to inserts; for example, diapers containing 450 and 300 g of urine performed, as well as inserts containing 300 and 100 g, respectively. No evidence was found for any other design feature having a significant impact on leakage performance. The coefficient of variation for Rothwell capacity (a measure of product consistency) had significant impact on the leakage performance of diapers, but not inserts. The probability of diapers with the poorest consistency leaking exceeded that for the best by about 10 percentage points. Similarly, diapers were about 10 percentage points more likely to leak when used at night than during the day. Differences between day-time and night-time use of inserts were not studied.

Clinical study: assessing the performance and skin environments of two reusable underpads.

The authors wanted to compare the performance and skin environment provided by a recently introduced reusable underpad (Test Group underpad) to an underpad already well established in the absorbent products market (Reference Group underpad). A controlled, prospective, randomized multi-centered clinical trial was conducted in 18 facilities (6 hospitals, 7 home health agencies, and 5 skilled nursing facilities) and completed by 107 patients. The majority of the patients had a Braden score near 13, were 70 to 80 years of age, and weighed 130 to 138 lbs. The Test Group underpad ranked more favorably overall and in all eight categories of daily assessment. These differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05) in the Total Score and in four of the eight individual categories: Keeping Skin Dry, Keeping Clothing Dry, No Pooling of Fluid, and Patient Comfort. The Test Group underpad also ranked more favorably with statistical significance (p < 0.05) in three of the assessment categories at the conclusion of the study: Pad Absorbency, Pad's Ability to Wick Moisture, and Pad's Ability to Keep Skin Dry. Investigators also noted that 57 patients (53%) exhibited some measure of improvement by the end of the study. Of these, 45 (79%) had been assigned to the Test Group. The Test Group underpad demonstrated better absorbency, kept patients' skin, clothing and bed linens drier, exhibited less pooling of fluid and resulted in higher patient comfort. As a result, it may have contributed to a more beneficial skin environment, allowing for prevention of preexisting skin integrity problems and enhancement of healing.

Testing incontinence pads using single-case research designs.

This article is predominantly concerned with the value of single-case research designs for generating nursing knowledge. The argument in favour of single-case research designs is made with reference to the testing of a range of body-worn incontinence pads in a group of cognitively impaired elderly women in two clinical settings.