Salicylic acid underpins silicon in ameliorating chromium toxicity in rice by modulating antioxidant defense, ion homeostasis and cellular ultrastructure.

Chromium (Cr) phytotoxicity affirmed the need of mitigation strategies to remediate polluted soils and restricts its accumulation in the food chains. Salicylic acid (SA) and silicon (Si) play pivotal roles in stimulating the plant performance and stress resilience. So far, their interactive effects against Cr-phytotoxicities are less known. Thus, we evaluated the beneficial roles of alone or/and combine applications of SA and Si in mitigating the toxic effects of Cr in the leaves and roots of rice (Oryza sativa) seedlings. Results indicated that SA (10 µM) and/or Si (5 µM) markedly retrieved the Cr (100 µM) induced toxicities by minimizing the Cr-accretion in both leaves and roots, enhancing the performance of light harvesting pigments (total chlorophylls and carotenoids), water retention and accumulation of osmolytes (water-soluble protein and total soluble sugars) and ultimately improved the growth and biomass. Additionally, SA and/or Si maintained the ionic balance by enhancing the nutrients transport, upregulated the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle enzymes, minimized the extra accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (H2O2 and O2•‒), malondialdehyde (MDA), recovered the membrane stability and damages in cellular ultrastructure in Cr-stressed rice plants. Overall findings suggested that SA underpins Si in mitigating the Cr-induced phytotoxicities on the above-reported parameters and combined applications of SA and Si were more effective than alone treatments. The uptake or cellular accumulation of Cr, osmoprotectants level and antioxidant defense system against oxidative stress can be considered as key toxicity biomarkers for the safe cultivation of rice in Cr-contaminated soils.