Come back when you're infected: pharmacy access to sterile syringes in an Arizona Secret Shopper Study, 2023.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacies are critical healthcare partners in community efforts to eliminate bloodborne illnesses. Pharmacy sale of sterile syringes is central to this effort. METHODS: A mixed methods "secret shopper" syringe purchase study was conducted in the fall of 2022 with 38 community pharmacies in Maricopa and Pima Counties, Arizona. Pharmacies were geomapped to within 2 miles of areas identified as having a potentially high volume of illicit drug commerce. Daytime venue sampling was used whereby separate investigators with lived/living drug use experience attempted to purchase syringes without a prescription. Investigator response when prompted for purchase rationale was "to protect myself from HIV and hepatitis C." A 24-item instrument measured sales outcome, pharmacy staff interaction (hostile/neutral/friendly), and the buyer's subjective experience. RESULTS: Only 24.6% (n = 28) of 114 purchase attempts across the 38 pharmacies resulted in syringe sale. Less than one quarter (21.1%) of pharmacies always sold, while 44.7% never sold. Independent and food store pharmacies tended not to sell syringes. There emerged distinct pharmacy staff interactions characterized by body language, customer query, normalization or othering response, response to purchase request and closure. Pharmacy discretion and pharmacy policy not to sell syringes without a prescription limited sterile syringe access. Investigators reported frequent and adverse emotional impact due to pharmacy staff negative and stigmatizing interactions. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacies miss opportunities to advance efforts to eliminate bloodborne infections by stringent no-sale policy and discretion about syringe sale. State regulatory policy facilitating pharmacy syringe sales, limiting pharmacist discretion for syringe sales, and targeting pharmacy-staff level education may help advance the achievement of public health goals to eliminate bloodborne infections in Arizona.

Results and Methodological Implications of the Digital Epidemiology of Prescription Drug References Among Twitter Users: Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) Analyses.

BACKGROUND: Social media is an important information source for a growing subset of the population and can likely be leveraged to provide insight into the evolving drug overdose epidemic. Twitter can provide valuable insight into trends, colloquial information available to potential users, and how networks and interactivity might influence what people are exposed to and how they engage in communication around drug use. OBJECTIVE: This exploratory study was designed to investigate the ways in which unsupervised machine learning analyses using natural language processing could identify coherent themes for tweets containing substance names. METHODS: This study involved harnessing data from Twitter, including large-scale collection of brand name (N=262,607) and street name (N=204,068) prescription drug-related tweets and use of unsupervised machine learning analyses (ie, natural language processing) of collected data with data visualization to identify pertinent tweet themes. Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) with coherence score calculations was performed to compare brand (eg, OxyContin) and street (eg, oxys) name tweets. RESULTS: We found people discussed drug use differently depending on whether a brand name or street name was used. Brand name categories often contained political talking points (eg, border, crime, and political handling of ongoing drug mitigation strategies). In contrast, categories containing street names occasionally referenced drug misuse, though multiple social uses for a term (eg, Sonata) muddled topic clarity. CONCLUSIONS: Content in the brand name corpus reflected discussion about the drug itself and less often reflected personal use. However, content in the street name corpus was notably more diverse and resisted simple LDA categorization. We speculate this may reflect effective use of slang terminology to clandestinely discuss drug-related activity. If so, straightforward analyses of digital drug-related communication may be more difficult than previously assumed. This work has the potential to be used for surveillance and detection of harmful drug use information. It also might be used for appropriate education and dissemination of information to persons engaged in drug use content on Twitter.

Using Normative Language When Describing Scientific Findings: Randomized Controlled Trial of Effects on Trust and Credibility.

BACKGROUND: Scientists often make cognitive claims (eg, the results of their work) and normative claims (eg, what should be done based on those results). Yet, these types of statements contain very different information and implications. This randomized controlled trial sought to characterize the granular effects of using normative language in science communication. OBJECTIVE: Our study examined whether viewing a social media post containing scientific claims about face masks for COVID-19 using both normative and cognitive language (intervention arm) would reduce perceptions of trust and credibility in science and scientists compared with an identical post using only cognitive language (control arm). We also examined whether effects were mediated by political orientation. METHODS: This was a 2-arm, parallel group, randomized controlled trial. We aimed to recruit 1500 US adults (age 18+) from the Prolific platform who were representative of the US population census by cross sections of age, race/ethnicity, and gender. Participants were randomly assigned to view 1 of 2 images of a social media post about face masks to prevent COVID-19. The control image described the results of a real study (cognitive language), and the intervention image was identical, but also included recommendations from the same study about what people should do based on the results (normative language). Primary outcomes were trust in science and scientists (21-item scale) and 4 individual items related to trust and credibility; 9 additional covariates (eg, sociodemographics, political orientation) were measured and included in analyses. RESULTS: From September 4, 2022, to September 6, 2022, 1526 individuals completed the study. For the sample as a whole (eg, without interaction terms), there was no evidence that a single exposure to normative language affected perceptions of trust or credibility in science or scientists. When including the interaction term (study arm × political orientation), there was some evidence of differential effects, such that individuals with liberal political orientation were more likely to trust scientific information from the social media post's author if the post included normative language, and political conservatives were more likely to trust scientific information from the post's author if the post included only cognitive language (ß=0.05, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.10; P=.04). CONCLUSIONS: This study does not support the authors' original hypotheses that single exposures to normative language can reduce perceptions of trust or credibility in science or scientists for all people. However, the secondary preregistered analyses indicate the possibility that political orientation may differentially mediate the effect of normative and cognitive language from scientists on people's perceptions. We do not submit this paper as definitive evidence thereof but do believe that there is sufficient evidence to support additional research into this topic, which may have implications for effective scientific communication. TRIAL REGISTRATION: OSF Registries osf.io/kb3yh; https://osf.io/kb3yh. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.2196/41747.

Pilot implementation of the PharmNet naloxone program in an independent pharmacy.

BACKGROUND: The U.S. overdose epidemic has continued to escalate with more than 100,000 deaths per year in the past several years, most of which involve opioids. Widespread availability of naloxone is part of a national solution to the crisis, and community pharmacies are well-poised to facilitate such distribution and provide additional harm reduction services. OBJECTIVES: The primary objectives of this study were to (a) examine the usability of each of the separate intervention components prepared for PharmNet, (b) observe intervention fidelity through regularly scheduled site visits, and (c) explore the association between PharmNet implementation and the volume of naloxone sales and distribution in the pilot site. PRACTICE DESCRIPTION: Here, we describe a carefully designed and tailored pharmacy harm reduction intervention called PharmNet that is designed to maximize harm reduction impact while minimizing utilization of pharmacist resources. It is a pragmatic awareness, service provision, and referral program that was developed through careful, iterative feasibility studies with pharmacists. PRACTICE INNOVATION: PharmNet procedures include tools and steps to create awareness (e.g., yard signs and messaging for patients, reminder tools for pharmacists), facilitation of naloxone delivery from nonprofits, and provision of referral cards featuring local resources. EVALUATION METHODS: Evaluation included direct data collection and randomly scheduled fidelity site visits. RESULTS: The intervention was associated with an increase of 3.33 naloxone doses/mo being dispensed at cost (34.4% relative increase) and an overall increase of 9.33 naloxone doses/mo being dispensed via any mechanism (96.48% relative increase). Around 2.85 referral cards were issued to patients daily. Intervention fidelity was moderate, and the study provides valuable information for how to modify the study prior to a randomized trial. CONCLUSION: With modifications informed by this pilot study, the PharmNet intervention merits a randomized trial to determine whether it causes increased naloxone dispensing in independent community pharmacies.

Beliefs and misperceptions about naloxone and overdose among U.S. laypersons: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Overdose education and naloxone distribution (OEND) to laypersons are key approaches to reduce the incidence of opioid-involved overdoses. While some research has examined attitudes toward OEND, especially among pharmacists and first responders, our understanding of what laypersons believe about overdose and naloxone is surprisingly limited. Further, some scholars have expressed concerns about the prevalence of non-evidence-based beliefs about overdose and naloxone. We designed this study to analyze the prevalence, nature, and context of beliefs about naloxone and overdose among U.S. laypersons. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study (n = 702) using Prolific.co (representative of the U.S. population by age, gender, and race). Primary outcomes were the believability of six statements about overdose/naloxone on a seven-point Likert-type scale. Five statements were unsupported, and one was supported, by current scientific evidence. We used latent profile analysis to classify participants into belief groups, then used regression to study correlates of profile classification. RESULTS: Believability of the statements (7: extremely believable) ranged from m = 5.57 (SD = 1.38) for a scientifically supported idea (trained bystanders can reverse overdose with naloxone), to m = 3.33 (SD = 1.83) for a statement claiming opioid users can get high on naloxone. Participants were classified into three latent belief profiles: Profile 1 (most aligned with current evidence; n = 246), Profile 2 (moderately aligned; n = 351), and Profile 3 (least aligned, n = 105). Compared to Profile 1, several covariates were associated with categorization into Profiles 2 and 3, including lower trust in science (RRR = 0.36, 95%CI = 0.24-0.54; RRR = 0.21, 95%CI = 0.12-0.36, respectively), conservative political orientation (RRR = 1.41, 95%CI = 1.23-1.63; 3:RRR = 1.62, 95%CI = 1.35-1.95, respectively), and never being trained about naloxone (Profile 3: RRR = 3.37, 95%CI = 1.16-9.77). CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary evidence suggests some U.S. laypersons simultaneously believe that bystander overdose prevention with naloxone can prevent overdose and one or more scientifically unsupported claims about naloxone/overdose. Categorization into clusters displaying such belief patterns was associated with low trust in science, conservative political orientation, and not having been trained about naloxone. PREREGISTRATION: This cross-sectional study was preregistered prior to any data collection using the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/c6ufv.

"The gatekeepers in prevention": Community pharmacist perceptions of their role in the opioid epidemic.

Background: Community pharmacists are at the frontline of patient care, yet their role in the opioid epidemic remains unclear. This qualitative study examines the perception of community pharmacists about their role in the opioid epidemic and challenges to fulfilling this role. Methods: A secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data from an Indiana census of community managing pharmacists was conducted. Qualitative data were coded using a priori and emergent themes. A priori categories included the perceived role of pharmacists in the opioid epidemic and perception of practice barriers. Results: A total of 215 Indiana community managing pharmacists participated in this study. Pharmacists understood themselves as gatekeepers in preventing opioid misuse and overdose. Reported pharmacy practices included providing patient education and communicating with prescribers. Challenges to fulfilling this role included pharmacy structure and operation, lack of patient and provider clarity about pharmacist scope of practice, and pharmacist perception that that there is no available discretionary time to support additional services. Conclusion: Pharmacists believe they have a vital role in combatting opioid misuse and overdose but are hampered by structural aspects of pharmacy practice and lack of recognition of their role. Pharmacy associations and policy partners are encouraged to identify opportunities to address these barriers.

Use of Project ECHO to promote evidence based care for justice involved adults with opioid use disorder.

Background: People with opioid use disorders (OUDs) are at heightened risk for involvement with the criminal justice system. Growing evidence supports the safety and effectiveness of providing empirically supported treatments for OUD, such as medications for OUD (M-OUD), to people with criminal justice involvement including during incarceration or upon reentry into the community. However, several barriers limit availability and accessibility of these treatment options for people with OUDs, including a shortage of healthcare and justice professionals trained in how to implement them. This study evaluated a novel education program, the Indiana Jail OUD Treatment ECHO, designed to disseminate specialty knowledge and improve attitudes about providing M-OUD in justice settings. Methods: Through didactic presentations and case-based learning (10 bimonthly, 90-min sessions), a multidisciplinary panel of specialists interacted with a diverse group of community-based participants from healthcare, criminal justice, law enforcement, and related fields. Participants completed standardized surveys about OUD knowledge and attitudes about delivering M-OUD in correctional settings. Thematic analysis of case presentations was conducted. Results: Among 43 participants with pre- and post-series evaluation data, knowledge about OUD increased and treatment was viewed as more practical after the ECHO series compared to before. Cases presented during the program typically involved complicated medical and psychiatric comorbidities, and recommendations addressed several themes including harm reduction, post-release supports, and integration of M-OUD and non-pharmacological interventions. Conclusions: Evaluation of future iterations of this innovative program should address attendance and provider behavior change as well as patient and community outcomes associated with ECHO participation.

Exploration of pharmacist comfort with harm reduction behaviors: Cross-sectional latent class analysis.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacists are positioned to play important roles in implementing evidence-based prevention and harm reduction approaches for opioid misuse and related health care outcomes such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C. More research is needed to understand how best to facilitate harm reduction practices among pharmacists. OBJECTIVES: This hypothesis-generating study investigated (1) whether subgroups (latent classes) were observable among pharmacists based on self-reported comfort with specific harm reduction behaviors, (2) whether having reported expertise in key content areas was associated with any latent classes that might be identified, and (3) whether comfort and training were associated with actually having dispensed syringes for likely nonprescription drug use. METHODS: This was a statewide census of community managing pharmacists in Arizona conducted from December 2018 to May 2019. Participants reported their degree of comfort with 10 harm reduction behaviors, their expertise (e.g., recent continuing pharmacy education or specialization) in selected content areas, and their syringe dispensing behavior. Additional sociodemographic information was also collected. Subgroups related to harm reduction were computed using latent class analysis, and associations between study variables were assessed using the Fisher's exact tests. RESULTS: Data suggested the existence of 4 latent, comfort-based harm reduction classes: high comfort, moderate comfort, and clinical comfort, and opioid prevention only. Reported expertise in pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV was likely associated with harm reduction class. However, class membership was not associated with reporting having dispensed nonprescription syringes, although the single comfort item for syringe dispensing, by itself, was associated therewith. CONCLUSION: Comfort with harm reduction likely clusters, so pharmacists may be broadly comfortable with topics or methods of harm reduction; however, comfort with a specific harm reduction pharmacy practice may be a better predictor of engaging in that behavior than harm reduction comfort class. In contrast, strategies to improve comfort, such as intervention development, might successfully be informed by pharmacists' latent class.

Quality control questions on Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk): A randomized trial of impact on the USAUDIT, PHQ-9, and GAD-7.

Crowdsourced psychological and other biobehavioral research using platforms like Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) is increasingly common - but has proliferated more rapidly than studies to establish data quality best practices. Thus, this study investigated whether outcome scores for three common screening tools would be significantly different among MTurk workers who were subject to different sets of quality control checks. We conducted a single-stage, randomized controlled trial with equal allocation to each of four study arms: Arm 1 (Control Arm), Arm 2 (Bot/VPN Check), Arm 3 (Truthfulness/Attention Check), and Arm 4 (Stringent Arm - All Checks). Data collection was completed in Qualtrics, to which participants were referred from MTurk. Subjects (n = 1100) were recruited on November 20-21, 2020. Eligible workers were required to claim U.S. residency, have a successful task completion rate > 95%, have completed a minimum of 100 tasks, and have completed a maximum of 10,000 tasks. Participants completed the US-Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (USAUDIT), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and a screener for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7). We found that differing quality control approaches significantly, meaningfully, and directionally affected outcome scores on each of the screening tools. Most notably, workers in Arm 1 (Control) reported higher scores than those in Arms 3 and 4 for all tools, and a higher score than workers in Arm 2 for the PHQ-9. These data suggest that the use, or lack thereof, of quality control questions in crowdsourced research may substantively affect findings, as might the types of quality control items.

Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral to Treatment Training for Undergraduate Nursing Students: A Quasi-Experimental Comparison of Distance and Face-to-Face Learning.

Alcohol and drug misuse continue to result in negative outcomes in the United States. Training nurses in screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) has been proposed as one approach to mitigating those harms. Such training can lead to improved attitudes and intention to use SBIRT in clinical practice, but whether those outcomes manifest similarly for distance or face-to-face learning has not been investigated. The current study is a quasi-experimental comparison of face-to-face and distance SBIRT education for undergraduate nursing students performed in Fall 2019. No differences in attitudes or intentions were observed between face-to-face and distance learning approaches. Self-reported competence meaningfully increased in both study arms, and there was some evidence of additional increases in perceived role legitimacy and intention to use SBIRT. To the degree that benefits are observed for SBIRT training, they may not vary between face-to-face and distance learning implementations of the same curriculum. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 60(8), 46-51.].

Misinformation about COVID-19: evidence for differential latent profiles and a strong association with trust in science.

BACKGROUND: The global spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been mirrored by diffusion of misinformation and conspiracy theories about its origins (such as 5G cellular networks) and the motivations of preventive measures like vaccination, social distancing, and face masks (for example, as a political ploy). These beliefs have resulted in substantive, negative real-world outcomes but remain largely unstudied. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional, online survey (n=660). Participants were asked about the believability of five selected COVID-19 narratives, their political orientation, their religious commitment, and their trust in science (a 21-item scale), along with sociodemographic items. Data were assessed descriptively, then latent profile analysis was used to identify subgroups with similar believability profiles. Bivariate (ANOVA) analyses were run, then multivariable, multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with membership in specific COVID-19 narrative believability profiles. RESULTS: For the full sample, believability of the narratives varied, from a low of 1.94 (SD=1.72) for the 5G narrative to a high of 5.56 (SD=1.64) for the zoonotic (scientific consensus) narrative. Four distinct belief profiles emerged, with the preponderance (70%) of the sample falling into Profile 1, which believed the scientifically accepted narrative (zoonotic origin) but not the misinformed or conspiratorial narratives. Other profiles did not disbelieve the zoonotic explanation, but rather believed additional misinformation to varying degrees. Controlling for sociodemographics, political orientation and religious commitment were marginally, and typically non-significantly, associated with COVID-19 belief profile membership. However, trust in science was a strong, significant predictor of profile membership, with lower trust being substantively associated with belonging to Profiles 2 through 4. CONCLUSIONS: Belief in misinformation or conspiratorial narratives may not be mutually exclusive from belief in the narrative reflecting scientific consensus; that is, profiles were distinguished not by belief in the zoonotic narrative, but rather by concomitant belief or disbelief in additional narratives. Additional, renewed dissemination of scientifically accepted narratives may not attenuate belief in misinformation. However, prophylaxis of COVID-19 misinformation might be achieved by taking concrete steps to improve trust in science and scientists, such as building understanding of the scientific process and supporting open science initiatives.

Intervening on Trust in Science to Reduce Belief in COVID-19 Misinformation and Increase COVID-19 Preventive Behavioral Intentions: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Trust in science meaningfully contributes to our understanding of people's belief in misinformation and their intentions to take actions to prevent COVID-19. However, no experimental research has sought to intervene on this variable to develop a scalable response to the COVID-19 infodemic. OBJECTIVE: Our study examined whether brief exposure to an infographic about the scientific process might increase trust in science and thereby affect belief in misinformation and intention to take preventive actions for COVID-19. METHODS: This two-arm, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial aimed to recruit a US representative sample of 1000 adults by age, race/ethnicity, and gender using the Prolific platform. Participants were randomly assigned to view either an intervention infographic about the scientific process or a control infographic. The intervention infographic was designed through a separate pilot study. Primary outcomes were trust in science, COVID-19 narrative belief profile, and COVID-19 preventive behavioral intentions. We also collected 12 covariates and incorporated them into all analyses. All outcomes were collected using web-based assessment. RESULTS: From January 22, 2021 to January 24, 2021, 1017 participants completed the study. The intervention slightly improved trust in science (difference-in-difference 0.03, SE 0.01, t1000=2.16, P=.031). No direct intervention effect was observed on belief profile membership, but there was some evidence of an indirect intervention effect mediated by trust in science (adjusted odds ratio 1.06, SE 0.03, 95% CI 1.00-1.12, z=2.01, P=.045) on membership in the "scientific" profile compared with the others. No direct nor indirect effects on preventive behaviors were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Briefly viewing an infographic about science appeared to cause a small aggregate increase in trust in science, which may have, in turn, reduced the believability of COVID-19 misinformation. The effect sizes were small but commensurate with our 60-second, highly scalable intervention approach. Researchers should study the potential for truthful messaging about how science works to serve as misinformation inoculation and test how best to do so. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT04557241; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04557241. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.2196/24383.

A qualitative analysis of vaccine decision makers' conceptualization and fostering of 'community engagement' in India.

BACKGROUND: Globally, and in India, research has highlighted the importance of community engagement in achieving national vaccination goals and in promoting health equity. However, community engagement is not well-defined and remains an underutilized approach. There is also paucity of literature on community engagement's effectiveness in achieving vaccination outcomes. To address that gap, this study interviewed Indian vaccination decision makers to derive a shared understanding of the evolving conceptualization of community engagement, and how it has been fostered during India's Decade of Vaccines (2010-2020). METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 25 purposefully sampled national-level vaccine decision makers in India, including policymakers, immunization program heads, and vaccine technical committee leads. Participants were identified by their 'elite' status among decisionmakers in the Indian vaccination space. Schutz' Social Phenomenological Theory guided development of an a priori framework derived from the Social Ecological Model. The framework helped organize participants' conceptualizations of communities, community engagement, and related themes. Inter-rater reliability was computed for a subsample of coded interviews, and findings were validated in a one-day member check-in meeting with study participants and teams. RESULTS: The interviews successfully elucidated participants' understanding of key terminology ("community") and approaches to community engagement propagated by the vaccine decision makers. Participants conceptualized 'communities' as vaccine-eligible children, their parents, frontline healthcare workers, and vaccination influencers. Engagement with those communities was understood to mean vaccine outreach, capacity-building of healthcare workers, and information dissemination. However, participants indicated that there were neither explicit policy guidelines defining community engagement nor pertinent evaluation metrics, despite awareness that community engagement is complex and under-researched. Examples of different approaches to community engagement ranged from vaccine imposition to empowered community vaccination decision-making. Finally, participants proposed an operational definition of community engagement and discussed concerns related to implementing it. CONCLUSIONS: Although decision makers had different perceptions about what constitutes a community, and how community engagement should optimally function, the combined group articulated its importance to ensure vaccination equity and reiterated the need for concerted political will to build trust with communities. At the same time, work remains to be done both in terms of research on community engagement as well as development of appropriate implementation and outcome metrics.

Assessing changes in US public trust in science amid the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: The emergence of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and subsequent pandemic has led to the most substantive large-scale, open, and public social discussion of epidemiology and science in recent history. In the United States (US), extensive debate has ensued as to the risk posed by the disease, whether the health system is prepared to manage a high volume of critical cases, whether any number of public health responses are necessary and appropriate, and the appropriate ways to prevent, manage, and treat the pandemic. I hypothesized that the interplay between scientists, policymakers, and the public in an open forum was associated with increased overall public trust in science and scientists, but that this was moderated by political orientation and/or religious commitment. In the context of a public health emergency, it is important to understand the degree to which science and scientists are trusted to produce information that can provide reassurance and also can explain the details of a highly complex event such as a viral pandemic while providing actionable recommendations. STUDY DESIGN: The study design was analytic cross-sectional. METHODS: Data were obtained on March 17-18, 2020, from a sample of 242 US-based Amazon Mechanical Turk users. Respondents completed a 49-question survey consisting of key sociodemographic variables, political affiliation, religious commitment, and two iterations of the Trust in Science and Scientist Inventory (one for March 2020, and one for December 2019 using retrospective recall). Changes in mean level of trust and interaction with political affiliation and/or religious commitment were assessed using mixed ANOVA via the general linear model. RESULTS: On a scale from 1 (low trust) to 5 (high trust), the mean level of trust in science and scientists was static; 3.82 in December 2019 and 3.81 in March 2020. Conservative political orientation and high religious commitment were associated with significantly less overall trust in science; the interaction effect suggested that liberal trust in science decreased slightly from December 2019 to March 2020, whereas conservative trust increased slightly. CONCLUSIONS: Counter to my expectations, the overall level of trust in science remained static after the first several months of COVID-19 in the US, although there is some evidence that political orientation was associated with magnitude and directionality of change in trust. Continued examination of these trends is important for understanding public response to epidemiologic recommendations.

Pilot study of the influence of self-coding on empathy within an introductory motivational interviewing training.

BACKGROUND: Motivational interviewing (MI) is a framework for addressing behavior change that is often used by healthcare professionals. Expression of empathy during MI is associated with positive client outcomes, while absence of empathy may produce iatrogenic effects. Although training in MI is linked to increased therapeutic empathy in learners, no research has investigated individual training components' contribution to this increase. The objective of this study was to test whether a self-coding MI exercise using smartphones completed at hour 6 of an 8-h MI training was superior in engendering empathy to training as usual (watching an MI expert perform in a video clip for the same duration at the same point in the training). METHODS: This was a pilot study at two sites using randomization and control groups with 1:1 allocation. Allocation was achieved via computerized assignment (site 1, United Kingdom) or facedown playing card distribution (site 2, United States). Participants were 58 students attending a university class at one of two universities, of which an 8-h segment was dedicated to a standardized MI training. Fifty-five students consented to participate and were randomized. The intervention was an MI self-coding exercise using smartphone recording and a standardized scoring sheet. Students were encouraged to reflect on areas of potential improvement based on their self-coding results. The main outcome measure was score on the Helpful Responses Questionnaire, a measure of therapeutic empathy, collected prior to and immediately following the 8-h training. Questionnaire coding was completed by 2 blinded external reviewers and assessed for interrater reliability, and students were assigned averaged empathy scores from 6 to 30. Analyses were conducted via repeated-measures ANOVA using the general linear model. RESULTS: Fifty-five students were randomized, and 2 were subsequently excluded from analysis at site 2 due to incomplete questionnaires. The study itself was feasible, and overall therapeutic empathy increased significantly and substantially among students. However, the intervention was not superior to the control condition in this study. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing a single passive learning exercise with an active learning exercise in an MI training did not result in a substantive boost to therapeutic empathy. However, consistently with prior research, this study identified significant overall increases in empathy following introductory MI training. A much larger study examining the impact of selected exercises and approaches would likely be useful and informative.

Naloxone availability and dispensing in Indiana pharmacies 2 years after the implementation of a statewide standing order.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined changes in rates of pharmacy naloxone stocking and dispensing in Indiana between 2016 and 2018 and explored supplemental variables and factors that may have affected observed differences. METHODS: Researchers used data from 2 existing datasets that were collected from managing pharmacists who responded to statewide pharmacy censuses in 2016 and 2018. After identifying all cases in which a pharmacy's managing pharmacist responded in both 2016 and 2018 censuses, researchers conducted a nonparametric statistical comparison of naloxone stocking and dispensing rates in 107 Indiana pharmacies. Additional descriptive data regarding naloxone-related pharmacy policies and educational programs during those years were collected in 2019 from pharmacy corporations operating food stores or chain pharmacies in Indiana and from the Indiana Pharmacists Association. RESULTS: Pharmacy stocking and dispensing in Indiana increased from 2016 to 2018. In 2016, 57% of pharmacies reported stocking naloxone compared with 92.5% in 2018 (P < 0.001). Similarly, 23.4% of pharmacies reported dispensing naloxone in 2016 compared with 76.6% of pharmacies in 2018 (P < 0.001). All responding pharmacy corporations and the state pharmacy association reported offering self-directed volunteer-training programs regarding naloxone since 2016. In addition, they reported that company policy and procedures regarding naloxone were put into place in response to the 2016 statewide standing order. CONCLUSION: Pharmacy naloxone stocking and dispensing increased in the 2 years after the statewide standing order was issued. The effect of the order itself was likely moderated or mediated by corporate responses to the law. Research examining the impact of naloxone-availability policies on pharmacy practice and patient incomes should longitudinally examine data after policy implementation and with covariates that include type of pharmacy (e.g., chain or independent), location, and opioid overdose-associated mortality rates.

Social Media Outrage in Response to a School-Based Substance Use Survey: Qualitative Analysis.

BACKGROUND: School-based alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use (ATOD) surveys are a common epidemiological means of understanding youth risk behaviors. They can be used to monitor national trends and provide data, in aggregate, to schools, communities, and states for the purposes of funding allocation, prevention programming, and other supportive infrastructure. However, such surveys sometimes are targeted by public criticism, and even legal action, often in response to a lack of perceived appropriateness. The ubiquity of social media has added the risk of potential online firestorms, or digital outrage events, to the hazards to be considered when administering such a survey. Little research has investigated the influence of online firestorms on public health survey administration, and no research has analyzed the content of such an occurrence. Analyzing this content will facilitate insights as to how practitioners can minimize the risk of generating outrage when conducting such surveys. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify common themes within social media comments comprising an online firestorm that erupted in response to a school-based ATOD survey in order to inform risk-reduction strategies. METHODS: Data were collected by archiving all public comments made in response to a news study about a school-based ATOD survey that was featured on a common social networking platform. Using the general inductive approach and elements of thematic analysis, two researchers followed a multi-step protocol to clean, categorize, and consolidate data, generating codes for all 207 responses. RESULTS: In total, 133 comments were coded as oppositional to the survey and 74 were coded as supportive. Among the former, comments tended to reflect government-related concerns, conspiratorial or irrational thinking, issues of parental autonomy and privacy, fear of child protective services or police, issues with survey mechanisms, and reasoned disagreement. Among the latter, responses showed that posters perceived the ability to prevent abuse and neglect and support holistic health, surmised that opponents were hiding something, expressed reasoned support, or made factual statements about the survey. Consistent with research on moral outrage and digital firestorms, few comments (<10%) contained factual information about the survey; nearly half of the comments, both supportive and oppositional, were coded in categories that presupposed misinformation. CONCLUSIONS: The components of even a small online firestorm targeting a school-based ATOD survey are nuanced and complex. It is likely impossible to be fully insulated against the risk of outrage in response to this type of public health work; however, careful articulation of procedures, anticipating specific concerns, and two-way community-based interaction may reduce risk.

HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis uptake by advanced practice nurses: Interplay of agency, community and attitudinal factors.

AIMS: To identify associations among agency, community, personal and attitudinal factors that affect advanced practice nurses' uptake of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis, an intervention consists of emtricitabine/tenofovir once-daily pill, along with sexual risk reduction education. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. METHODS: During March-May 2017, randomly selected Indiana advanced practice nurses were invited to complete an online survey, consisted of several validated self-rating measures (N = 1,358; response = 32.3%). Final sample (N = 369) was predominantly White, non-Hispanic, female advanced practice nurses in urban practices (mean age = 46). Conceptual model for structural equation model included 29 original/composite variables and five latent factors. RESULTS: Final model consisted of 11 variables and four factors: agency, community, HIV prevention practices (including screening) and motivation to adopt evidence-based practices overall. Community had direct effects on HIV prevention practices (estimate = 0.28) and agency (estimate = 0.29). Agency had direct effects on HIV prevention practices (estimate = 0.74) and motivation to adopt evidence-based practices (estimate = 0.24). Community had indirect effects, through agency, on the two remaining factors. CONCLUSION: Barriers exist against pre-exposure prophylaxis implementation, although practice guidelines are available. HIV prevention practices must be integrated across organizational structures, especially in high-risk communities, whereas practice change is more effective when focused on changing providers' attitudes towards intervention. When planning a pre-exposure prophylaxis intervention, advancing inputs from healthcare professionals, organizational leadership and community members, is crucial to success. IMPACT: In settings where advanced practice nurses are primary contact points for health care, they may be best positioned to have an impact on implementation of HIV risk reduction strategies. Further research is needed to optimize their contributions to pre-exposure prophylaxis implementation.

Training future clinicians: An interprofessional approach to treating tobacco use and dependence.

The high prevalence of smoking among persons with mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorders has not changed in the past decade despite a decline in smoking among the general population. Interprofessional collaborative care offers clinicians the opportunity to engage their patients in tobacco cessation treatment that is coordinated and comprehensive. Investigators applied a 1-group, pre/post-test design with qualitative and quantitative descriptive analyses to estimate the impact of an interprofessional tobacco education program on perceived self-efficacy and self-reported counseling abilities of graduate nursing, social work, and pharmacy (PharmD) students (N = 36; nursing, n = 13, n = 9 PharmD, n = 14 social work) to treat tobacco dependence among this subpopulation of smokers, and to assess their perceptions of interprofessional education. All participants completed a 2-h web-based module, a 3-h classroom training, a simulation with a standardized patient, and a group audio-recorded debriefing session with faculty. Emergent themes from qualitative analyses were valuing simulations, demystifying disciplines, reflecting on and critiquing practice, and lessons learned. Participants' perceived self-efficacy, self-rated counseling ability, intention to ask about tobacco use, and intention to provide counseling for tobacco cessation increased significantly. Teaching students an interprofessional team approach appears to be effective in enhancing counseling abilities and self-efficacy and may positively influence health professions students' perceptions of interprofessional education. Larger studies are recommended to validate the results of this pilot study.

Continued development of the Rural Active Living Perceived Environmental Support Scale (RALPESS): preliminary evidence for validity among American Indians.

INTRODUCTION: Much of the US adult population does not engage in regular physical activity or meet the recommended guidelines for exercise. Moreover, many rural Americans disproportionately experience lower health status and life expectancy attributed to obesity, poor diet, and lack of physical activity. Evidence supports the role of perceived physical and social-environmental factors as potential influencers of exercise. However, measurement of these influencers, particularly within diverse, rural populations, has been sparse. A substantial number of American Indians live in federally defined rural areas, and many rural American Indians are at elevated risk for being overweight and obese due to physical inactivity. Therefore, this study established the validity and reliability of the Rural Active Living Perceived Environmental Support Scale (RALPESS) within a predominantly rural American Indian sample. METHODS: In this cross-sectional pilot study, the 33-item RALPESS was administered to 130 adults, across 19 rural localities within Oklahoma, who were recruited from community events hosted by local partners of the tribal Head Start program. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the hypothesized factor structure of the RALPESS. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis showed an adequate fit between the hypothesized model and the data. Analyses produced an acceptable χ2 goodness of fit index with two degrees of freedom. The comparative fit index and parsimony goodness of fit index were acceptable. The root mean square error of approximation and its 90% confidence interval were also acceptable. Overall, the RALPESS showed suitable internal consistency for the full measure and its subscales, resulting in Cronbach's alpha between 0.82 and 0.96. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study produced confirmatory evidence that the RALPESS is likely a valid and reliable tool for use with rural American Indian populations. Continued validation of this scale, particularly in international rural communities, will support further investigation into this important public health issue, and may further efforts towards the development and promotion of effective programming to increase exercise engagement.