Visualizing Cholesterol in the Brain by On-Tissue Derivatization and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry Imaging.

Despite being a critical molecule in the brain, mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) of cholesterol has been under-reported compared to other lipids due to the difficulty in ionizing the sterol molecule. In the present work, we have employed an on-tissue enzyme-assisted derivatization strategy to improve detection of cholesterol in brain tissue sections. We report distribution and levels of cholesterol across specific structures of the mouse brain, in a model of Niemann-Pick type C1 disease, and during brain development. MSI revealed that in the adult mouse, cholesterol is the highest in the pons and medulla and how its distribution changes during development. Cholesterol was significantly reduced in the corpus callosum and other brain regions in the Npc1 null mouse, confirming hypomyelination at the molecular level. Our study demonstrates the potential of MSI to the study of sterols in neuroscience.

Maternal cariprazine exposure inhibits embryonic and postnatal brain cholesterol biosynthesis.

Cariprazine (CAR) is a strong inhibitor of the Dhcr7 enzyme, the last enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. We assessed the effects of CAR on maternally exposed Dhcr7+/- and wild-type mouse offspring, and tested the biochemical effects of CAR in human serum samples. Dhcr7+/- and wild-type time-pregnant mice were exposed to vehicle or 0.2 mg/kg CAR from E12 to E19. Levels of CAR, CAR metabolites, sterols, and oxysterols were measured in the brain of maternally exposed offspring at various time points using LC-MS/MS. Embryonic exposure to CAR significantly increased levels of 7-DHC in all organs of exposed embryos, with a particularly strong effect in the brain. Detectable levels of CAR and elevated 7-DHC were observed in the brain of newborn pups 14 days after drug exposure. In addition, CAR altered sterol metabolism in all animals analyzed, with the strongest effect on the brain of Dhcr7+/- pups born to Dhcr7+/- dams. Furthermore, CAR elevated toxic oxysterols in the brain of maternally exposed Dhcr7+/- offspring to levels approaching those seen in a mouse model of Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Finally, we observed that patients taking CAR have elevated 7-DHC in their serum. In summary, maternal DHCR7 heterozygosity, combined with offspring DHCR7 heterozygosity might represent a vulnerability factor to medications that interfere with sterol biosynthesis. Due to the conserved sterol biosynthesis between mice and humans, we suggest that the 1-3% of patient population with single-allele DHCR7 mutations might not be ideal candidates for CAR use, especially if they are nursing, pregnant or plan to become pregnant.

Maternal aripiprazole exposure interacts with 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase mutations and alters embryonic neurodevelopment.

Mutations in both copies in the gene encoding 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7) cause Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), which is characterized by a toxic elevation in 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Aripiprazole (ARI) exposure, independent of genetic mutations, also leads to elevation of 7-DHC. We investigated the combined effect of a single-copy Dhcr7+/- mutation and maternal ARI exposure on the developing offspring brain. We generated a time-pregnant mouse model where WT and Dhcr7+/- embryos were maternally exposed to ARI or vehicle (VEH) from E12 to E19 (5 mg/kg). Levels of cholesterol, its precursors, ARI and its metabolites were measured at P0. We found that ARI and its metabolites were transported across the placenta and reached the brain of offspring. Maternal ARI exposure led to decreased viability of embryos and increased 7-DHC levels, regardless of maternal or offspring Dhcr7 genotype. In addition, Dhcr7+/- pups were more vulnerable to maternal ARI exposure than their WT littermates, and maternal Dhcr7+/- genotype also exacerbated offspring response to ARI treatment. Finally, both 7-DHC levels and 7-DHC/cholesterol ratio is the highest in Dhcr7+/- pups from Dhcr7+/- mothers exposed to ARI, underscoring a potentially dangerous interaction between maternal genotype×embryonic genotype×treatment. Our findings have important clinical implications. SLOS patients should avoid drugs that increase 7-DHC levels such as ARI, trazodone and haloperidol. In addition, treatment with 7-DHC elevating substances might be potentially unsafe for the 1-1.5% of population with single-allele disruptions of the DHCR7 gene. Finally, prenatal and parental genetic testing for DHCR7 should be considered before prescribing sterol-interfering medications during pregnancy.

Desmosterolosis and desmosterol homeostasis in the developing mouse brain.

Cholesterol serves as a building material for cellular membranes and plays an important role in cellular metabolism. The brain relies on its own cholesterol biosynthesis, which starts during embryonic development. Cholesterol is synthesized from two immediate precursors, desmosterol and 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Mutations in the DHCR24 enzyme, which converts desmosterol into cholesterol, lead to desmosterolosis, an autosomal recessive developmental disorder. In this study, we assessed the brain content of desmosterol, 7-DHC, and cholesterol from development to adulthood, and analyzed the biochemical, molecular, and anatomical consequences of Dhcr24 mutations on the sterol profile in a mouse model of desmosterolosis and heterozygous Dhcr24+/- carriers. Our HPLC-MS/MS studies revealed that by P0 desmosterol almost entirely replaced cholesterol in the Dhcr24-KO brain. The greatly elevated desmosterol levels were also present in the Dhcr24-Het brains irrespective of maternal genotype, persisting into adulthood. Furthermore, Dhcr24-KO mice brains showed complex changes in expression of lipid and sterol transcripts, nuclear receptors, and synaptic plasticity transcripts. Cultured Dhcr24-KO neurons showed increased arborization, which was also present in the Dhcr24-KO mouse brains. Finally, we observed a shared pathophysiological mechanism between the mouse models of desmosterolosis and Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (a genetic disorder of conversion of 7-DHC to cholesterol).

Dichlorophenyl piperazines, including a recently-approved atypical antipsychotic, are potent inhibitors of DHCR7, the last enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis.

While antipsychotic medications provide important relief from debilitating psychotic symptoms, they also have significant adverse side effects, which might have relevant impact on human health. Several research studies, including ours, have shown that commonly used antipsychotics such as haloperidol and aripiprazole affect cholesterol biosynthesis at the conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) to cholesterol. This transformation is promoted by the enzyme DHCR7 and its inhibition causes increases in plasma and tissue levels of 7-DHC. The inhibition of this enzymatic step by mutations in the Dhcr7 gene leads to Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, a devastating human condition that can be replicated in rats by small molecule inhibitors of DHCR7. The fact that two compounds, brexpiprazole and cariprazine, that were recently approved by the FDA have substructural elements in common with the DHCR7 inhibitor aripiprazole, prompted us to evaluate the effect of brexpiprazole and cariprazine on cholesterol biosynthesis. We report that cariprazine affects levels of 7-DHC and cholesterol in cell culture incubations at concentrations as low as 5 nM. Furthermore, a common metabolite of cariprazine and aripiprazole, 2,3-(dichlorophenyl) piperazine, inhibits DHCR7 activity at concentrations comparable to those of the potent teratogen AY9944. The cell culture experiments were corroborated in mice in studies showing that treatment with cariprazine elevated 7-DHC in brain and serum. The consequences of sterol inhibition by antipsychotics in the developing nervous system and the safety of their use during pregnancy remains to be established.

Metoprolol Inhibits Developmental Brain Sterol Biosynthesis in Mice.

De novo sterol synthesis is a critical homeostatic mechanism in the brain that begins during early embryonic development and continues throughout life. Multiple medications have sterol-biosynthesis-inhibiting side effects, with potentially detrimental effects on brain health. Using LC-MS/MS, we investigated the effects of six commonly used beta-blockers on brain sterol biosynthesis in vitro using cell lines. Two beta-blockers, metoprolol (MTP) and nebivolol, showed extreme elevations of the highly oxidizable cholesterol precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) in vitro across multiple cell lines. We followed up on the MTP findings using a maternal exposure model in mice. We found that 7-DHC was significantly elevated in all maternal brain regions analyzed as well as in the heart, liver and brain of the maternally exposed offspring. Since DHCR7-inhibiting/7-DHC elevating compounds can be considered teratogens, these findings suggest that MTP utilization during pregnancy might be detrimental for the development of offspring, and alternative beta-blockers should be considered.

Altered Cholesterol Biosynthesis Affects Drug Metabolism.

The last step of cholesterol biosynthesis is the conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) into cholesterol, a reaction catalyzed by dehydrocholesterol reductase 7 (DHCR7). Investigation of the effect of Dhcr7 single-allele mutations on the metabolism of aripiprazole (ARI) and cariprazine (CAR) in maternally exposed transgenic pups revealed that ARI, CAR, and their active metabolites were decreased in the liver and brain of Dhcr7 +/- . This difference in the drug and metabolite levels resulted in an increased turnover of ARI and CAR in tissues from Dhcr7 +/- animals, indicating an enhanced metabolism, which was at least partially due to increased levels of Cyp2d6 in the liver of Dhcr7 +/- mice. Finally, experiments with both WT and DHCR7 +/- human fibroblasts revealed lower drug levels in DHCR7 +/- heterozygous cells. Our findings have potential clinical implications, as DHCR7 heterozygosity is present in 1-3% in the human population, and these individuals might have reduced therapeutic levels of Cyp2d6-metabolized medications and are putatively more susceptible to unwanted side effects.

Interaction of maternal immune activation and genetic interneuronal inhibition.

Genes and environment interact during intrauterine life, and potentially alter the developmental trajectory of the brain. This can result in life-long consequences on brain function. We have previously developed two transgenic mouse lines that suppress Gad1 expression in parvalbumin (PVALB) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) expressing interneuron populations using a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-driven miRNA-based silencing technology. We were interested to assess if maternal immune activation (MIA), genetic interneuronal inhibition, and the combination of these two factors disrupt and result in long-term changes in neuroinflammatory gene expression, sterol biosynthesis, and acylcarnitine levels in the brain of maternally exposed offspring. Pregnant female WT mice were given a single intraperitoneal injection of saline or polyinosinic-polycytidilic acid [poly(I:C)] at E12.5. Brains of offspring were analyzed at postnatal day 90. We identified complex and persistent neuroinflammatory gene expression changes in the hippocampi of MIA-exposed offspring, as well in the hippocampi of Npy/Gad1 and Pvalb/Gad1 mice. In addition, both MIA and genetic inhibition altered the post-lanosterol sterol biosynthesis in the neocortex and disrupted the typical acylcarnitine profile. In conclusion, our findings suggest that both MIA and inhibition of interneuronal function have long-term consequences on critical homeostatic mechanisms of the brain, including immune function, sterol levels, and energy metabolism.

Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibition in Pregnant Women Taking Prescription Medications.

Sterol biosynthesis is a critical homeostatic mechanism of the body. Sterol biosynthesis begins during early embryonic life and continues throughout life. Many commonly used medications, prescribed >200 million times in the United States annually, have a sterol biosynthesis inhibition side effect. Using our high-throughput LC-MS/MS method, we assessed the levels of post-lanosterol sterol intermediates (lanosterol, desmosterol, and 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC)) and cholesterol in 1312 deidentified serum samples from pregnant women. 302 samples showing elevated 7-DHC were analyzed for the presence of 14 medications known to inhibit the 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase enzyme (DHCR7) and increase 7-DHC. Of the 302 samples showing 7-DHC elevation, 43 had detectable levels of prescription medications with a DHCR7-inhibiting side effect. Taking more than one 7-DHC-elevating medication in specific combinations (polypharmacy) might exacerbate the effect on 7-DHC levels in pregnant women, suggesting a potentially additive or synergistic effect. As 7-DHC and 7-DHC-derived oxysterols are toxic, and as DHCR7-inhibiting medications are considered teratogens, our findings raise potential concerns regarding the use of prescription medication with a DHCR7-inhibiting side effect during pregnancy. The use of prescription medications during pregnancy is sometimes unavoidable, but choosing a medication without a DHCR7-inhibiting side effect might lead to a heathier pregnancy and prevent putatively adverse outcomes for the developing offspring.

Prescription Medications Alter Neuronal and Glial Cholesterol Synthesis.

Mouse brain contains over 100 million neuronal, glial, and other support cells. Developing neurons and astrocytes synthesize their own cholesterol, and disruption of this process can occur by both genetic and chemical mechanisms. In this study we have exposed cultured murine neurons and astrocytes to six different prescription medications that cross the placenta and blood-brain barriers and analyzed the effects of these drugs on cholesterol biosynthesis by an LC-MS/MS protocol that assays 14 sterols and 7 oxysterols in a single run. Three antipsychotics (haloperidol, cariprazine, aripiprazole), two antidepressants (trazodone and sertraline), and an antiarhythmic (amiodarone) inhibited one or more sterol synthesis enzymes. The result of the exposures was a dose-dependent increase in levels of various sterol intermediates and a decreased level of cholesterol in the cultured cells. Four prescription medications (haloperidol, aripiprazole, cariprazine, and trazodone) acted primarily on the DHCR7 enzyme. The result of this exposure was an increase in 7-dehydrocholesterol in neurons and astrocytes to levels that were comparable to those found in cultured neurons and astrocytes from transgenic mice that carried a Dhcr7 pathogenic mutation modeling the neurodevelopmental disorder Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome.

Trazodone effects on developing brain.

Trazodone (TRZ) is a commonly prescribed antidepressant with significant off-label use for insomnia. A recent drug screening revealed that TRZ interferes with sterol biosynthesis, causing elevated levels of sterol precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Recognizing the well-documented, disruptive effect of 7-DHC on brain development, we designed a study to analyze TRZ effects during pregnancy. Utilizing an in vivo model and human biomaterial, our studies were designed to also account for drug interactions with maternal or offspring Dhcr7 genotype. In a maternal exposure model, we found that TRZ treatment increased 7-DHC and decreased desmosterol levels in brain tissue in newborn pups. We also observed interactions between Dhcr7 mutations and maternal TRZ exposure, giving rise to the most elevated toxic oxysterols in brains of Dhcr7+/- pups with maternal TRZ exposure, independently of the maternal Dhcr7 genotype. Therefore, TRZ use during pregnancy might be a risk factor for in utero development of a neurodevelopmental disorder, especially when the unborn child is of DHCR7+/- genotype. The effects of TRZ on 7-DHC was corroborated in human serum samples. We analyzed sterols and TRZ levels in individuals with TRZ prescriptions and found that circulating TRZ levels correlated highly with 7-DHC. The abundance of off-label use and high prescription rates of TRZ might represent a risk for the development of DHCR7 heterozygous fetuses. Thus, TRZ use during pregnancy is potentially a serious public health concern.

Amiodarone Alters Cholesterol Biosynthesis through Tissue-Dependent Inhibition of Emopamil Binding Protein and Dehydrocholesterol Reductase 24.

Amiodarone is prescribed for the treatment and prevention of irregular heartbeats. Although effective in clinical practice, the long-term use of amiodarone has many unwanted side effects, including cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic, and neurological toxicities. Our objective was to elucidate effects of amiodarone exposure on the cholesterol metabolism in cultured neuronal and non-neuronal cells and in individuals taking amiodarone. We observed that amiodarone increases distinct cholesterol precursors in different cell types in a dose-dependent manner. In liver and kidney cell lines, amiodarone causes increase in desmosterol levels, and in primary cortical neurons and astrocytes, amiodarone increases zymosterol, zymostenol, and 8-dehydrocholesterol (8-DHC). We conclude that amiodarone inhibits two enzymes in the pathway, emopamil binding protein (EBP) and dehydrocholesterol reductase 24 (DHCR24). Cortical neurons and astrocytes are more sensitive to amiodarone than liver and kidney cell lines. We confirmed the inhibition of EBP enzyme by analyzing the sterol intermediates in EBP-deficient Neuro2a cells versus amiodarone-treated control Neuro2a cells. To determine if the cell culture experiments have clinical relevance, we analyzed serum samples from amiodarone users. We found that in patient serum samples containing detectable amount of amiodarone there are elevated levels of the sterol precursors zymosterol, 8-DHC, and desmosterol. This study illustrates the need for close monitoring of blood biochemistry during prolonged amiodarone use to minimize the risk of side effects.

Cholesterol Biosynthesis and Uptake in Developing Neurons.

Brain cholesterol biosynthesis, a separate and distinct process from whole-body cholesterol homeostasis, starts during embryonic development. To gain a better understanding of the neuronal and glial contributions to the brain cholesterol pool, we studied this process in control, Dhcr7-/-, and Dhcr24-/- cell cultures. Our LC-MS/MS method allowed us to measure several different sterol intermediates and cholesterol during neuronal differentiation. We found that developing cortical neurons rely on endogenous cholesterol synthesis and utilize ApoE-complexed cholesterol and sterol precursors from their surroundings. Both developing neurons and astrocytes release cholesterol into their local environment. Our studies also uncovered that developing neurons produced significantly higher amounts of cholesterol per cell than the astrocytes. Finally, we established that both neurons and astroglia preferentially use the Bloch sterol biosynthesis pathway, where desmosterol is the immediate precursor to cholesterol. Overall, our studies suggest that endogenous sterol synthesis in developing neurons is a critical and complexly regulated homeostatic process during brain development.