Viability of Chlamydia trachomatis in different anatomical sites - a systematic review & meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Modern assays for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) rely on nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) of DNA or ribosomal RNA. However, it is also known that both viable ("living") & non-viable ("dead") CT can be detected by NAAT. Multiple laboratory techniques to measure CT viability have emerged. METHODS: We searched PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus and Dimensions as well as conference abstracts for entries between January 2000 to May 2023. We included any studies that measured CT viability among NAAT-positive samples. Viability assays include enhanced cell culture, direct fluorescent antibody (DFA), messenger RNA (mRNA) detection via digital droplet PCR (ddPCR), viability PCR (V-PCR) & real-time PCR measuring RNA-to-DNA ratio (RDR) (e.g. InSignia®). A meta-analysis was performed on the proportions of non-viable CT by anatomical site. RESULTS: We screened 31,342 records and included 16 studies in the analysis. The pooled proportions of non-viable CT by site were: 33% (95%CI 19-47%) in rectal swabs (eight studies), 17% (95%CI 7-27%) in cervical swabs (six studies), 15% (95%CI 6-25%) in vaginal swabs (six studies) and 11% (95%CI 9-17%) in urine/urethral swabs (two studies). CONCLUSION: All included studies found that a proportion of NAAT-detected CT is non-viable. The findings have far-reaching implications for screening programs and studies evaluating new STI tests and antimicrobial regimens.

Unnecessary antibiotic use in men who have sex with men (MSM) with anogenital symptoms attending a sexual health clinic: a retrospective analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify the amount of unnecessary antibiotics, in particular ceftriaxone, given to men who have sex with men (MSM) with anogenital symptoms as part of presumptive management in an urban sexual health clinic and examine factors associated with unnecessary ceftriaxone. METHODS: This is a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of electronic records from all visits involving MSM reporting symptoms of bacterial sexually transmitted infection (STI) and who received presumptive antibiotics at Sydney Sexual Health Centre. The following variables were extracted: demographic and sexual behaviour data, presenting symptoms, prior STI diagnoses, use of anoscopy, use of point-of-care microscopy, prescriptions of antibiotics and subsequent nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) results for chlamydia and gonorrhoea in all anatomical sites (urethra, pharynx and rectum). We defined unnecessary antibiotic as an agent prescribed to treat an STI organism that was subsequently not detected. RESULTS: Among 1061 visits in this analysis, 41.8% yielded negative NAAT results for both chlamydia and gonorrhoea in all anatomical sites. There were 44.3% of visits which had positive gonorrhoea NAAT result in at least one anatomical site. There were 187 courses of ceftriaxone prescribed in patients who tested negative for gonorrhoea in all anatomical sites and therefore were unnecessary. Unnecessary ceftriaxone prescribing occurred in 50.2% of visits with anorectal symptoms, 19.6% of scrotal symptoms and 7.3% of urethral symptoms. Microscopy was associated with significantly less unnecessary ceftriaxone in urethral but not anorectal or scrotal presentations. In multivariable analysis, the following factors were associated with a higher likelihood of unnecessary ceftriaxone use: anorectal symptoms, scrotal symptoms, gonorrhoea in the preceding year, contact of a bacterial STI and living with HIV. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the significant amount of unnecessary ceftriaxone used for STI symptoms in MSM. A new pathway incorporating rapid point-of-care molecular testing in symptomatic patients may improve the precision of antibiotic prescribing and reduce unnecessary use.

Treatment 'cultures', sexually transmitted infections and the rise of antimicrobial resistance.

In this article, we examine the current management of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), in the context of rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR), through the lens of 'treatment cultures'. Prevailing treatment cultures-including the prominence of syndromic care for STIs-foster certain possibilities and foreclose others, with important consequences for countering AMR. Drawing on qualitative interviews with STI professionals, experts and industry representatives, we unpack these stakeholders' accounts of STI treatment cultures, drawing out the importance of socio-historical (i.e. taboo and stigma), political-economic (i.e. perceptions of significance, profit-making and prioritisation) and subjective (i.e. patient contexts and reflexivity) dimensions therein. In developing this critical account of how treatment cultures are formed, reproduced and indeed resisted, we reveal how such discourses and practices render the reining in of AMR and shifting antibiotic use difficult, and yet, how productive engagement remains key to any proposed solutions. As such, the article contributes to our understanding of AMR as a highly diversified field, through our exploration of the bio-social dimensions of resistance as they relate to the case of STIs.

National Surveillance of Home-Based HIV Testing Among Australian Gay and Bisexual Men, 2018-2020: Uptake After Commercial Availability of HIV Self-Tests.

HIV self-testing allows people to collect samples and test themselves at home, addressing known barriers to facility-based testing. We aimed to measure the uptake of home HIV testing among Australian gay and bisexual men (GBM). Using national cross-sectional data from the Australian Gay Community Periodic Surveys, we assessed trends in home HIV testing among non-HIV positive GBM between 2018 and 2020. Overall, the use of home HIV testing was low, but slightly increased during 2018-2020 (from 0.3 to 0.8%, RR = 1.54, 95%CI = 1.23-1.92, p-trend < 0.001). Testing at home was more likely among non-HIV-positive GBM who were born overseas and recently arrived in Australia, at higher risk of HIV, and infrequent HIV testers. Given the greater use of home testing by men at higher risk of HIV, recent migrants and infrequent testers, all priority groups in Australia's HIV epidemic, we recommend increasing access to HIV self-testing to enhance uptake in these and other groups of GBM.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Assays Using Point-of-Care Testing or Dried Blood Spot Samples for the Determination of Hepatitis C Virus RNA: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Finger-stick point-of-care and dried blood spot (DBS) hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA testing increases testing uptake and linkage to care. This systematic review evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care testing and DBS to detect HCV RNA. METHODS: Bibliographic databases and conference presentations were searched for eligible studies. Meta-analysis was used to pool estimates. RESULTS: Of 359 articles identified, 43 studies were eligible and included. When comparing the Xpert HCV Viral Load Fingerstick assay to venous blood samples (7 studies with 987 samples), the sensitivity and specificity for HCV RNA detection was 99% (95% confidence interval [CI], 97%-99%) and 99% (95% CI, 94%-100%) and for HCV RNA quantification was 100% (95% CI, 93%-100%) and 100% (95% CI, 94%-100%). The proportion of invalid results following Xpert HCV Viral Load Fingerstick testing was 6% (95% CI, 3%-11%). When comparing DBS to venous blood samples (28 studies with 3988 samples) the sensitivity and specificity for HCV RNA detection was 97% (95% CI, 95%-98%) and 100% (95% CI, 98%-100%) and for HCV RNA quantification was 98% (95% CI, 96%-99%) and 100% (95% CI, 95%-100%). CONCLUSIONS: Excellent diagnostic accuracy was observed across assays for detection of HCV RNA from finger-stick and DBS samples. The proportion of invalid results following Xpert HCV Viral Load Fingerstick testing highlights the importance of operator training and quality assurance programs.

Ureteropyeloscopic removal of a nephrolith from a 19 year old Hanoverian gelding.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the ureteropyeloscopic removal of a nephrolith in a horse. ANIMALS: A 19 year old Hanoverian gelding with history of urolithiasis requiring surgical intervention. STUDY DESIGN: Case report METHODS: The horse presented with signs of abdominal straining and stranguria. A proximal urethral calculus was palpable externally within the perineal urethra. Perineal urethrostomy (PU) at the location of the urethral calculi was performed to remove the urethral obstruction. Left nephrolithiasis was then treated by endoscopic retrieval, inserting the endoscope through the PU. The procedures were performed over 2 consecutive days, with the horse standing and sedated. Medical therapy included antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory treatment. RESULTS: The ureteropyeloscopic removal of a nephrolith from the left renal pelvis was completed. No complications were appreciated following the procedure, and the horse was able to return to athletic activity within 2 weeks. The horse had no further clinical signs referable to urinary dysfunction 7 months later. CONCLUSION: Ureteropyeloscopic removal of a nephrolith from the renal pelvis is technically feasible in the equine patient and preserves function of the affected kidney. The availability of a treatment that maintains renal function is a distinct benefit over unilateral nephrectomy, particularly when treating a condition that frequently involves both kidneys.

Evaluation of the 4-point regional nerve block using 2% lidocaine in sheep.

PURPOSE: To determine whether a single 4-point regional nerve block using 2% lidocaine administered distal to the fetlock of sheep with a single distal limb lameness will result in analgesia of the digits. ANIMALS: Eighteen adult ewes with a single limb lameness originating from distal to the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint were enrolled in the study. PROCEDURES: Digital lameness was confirmed and scored based on clinical examination. Pain associated with digital lesions was assessed in triplicate using a pressure algometer to quantify mechanical nociceptive threshold. The same procedure was repeated on the contralateral limb as a control, and maximum force and time to response recorded. A 4-point regional nerve block was performed using 8 mL of 2% lidocaine. Mechanical nociception was again applied in triplicate to both limbs as described above, by a blinded investigator. Following appropriate medical treatment, the ewe was released and lameness scoring repeated.Median values for pressure and time to withdrawal were determined for affected and control limbs, and differences between pre- and post-lidocaine block measures were compared using Friedman's ANOVA test. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test was used to compare lameness score pre- and post-block. Statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. MAIN FINDINGS: Application of the 4-point block resulted in a change in pressure required to elicit withdrawal (F-value 17.7; P < 0.0001) as well as time to withdrawal (F-value 20.4; P < 0.0001), for the affected limb as compared to the control limb. Lameness scores decreased following the block (Signed-rank statistic 85.5; P < 0.0001). PRINCIPAL CONCLUSION: The 4-point nerve block resulted in anesthesia of the distal limb in sheep in this clinical model.

Évaluation du bloc nerveux régional en quatre points avec de la lidocaïne à 2 % chez le mouton. OBJECTIF: Déterminer si un seul bloc nerveux régional en quatre points utilisant de la lidocaïne à 2 % administrée distalement du boulet d'un mouton présentant une boiterie d'un seul membre distal entraînera une analgésie des doigts. ANIMAUX: Dix-huit brebis adultes avec une boiterie d'un seul membre provenant de la partie distale de l'articulation métacarpo/métatarsophalangienne ont été incluses dans l'étude. PROCÉDURES: La boiterie digitale a été confirmée et notée sur la base d'un examen clinique. La douleur associée aux lésions digitales a été évaluée en triple à l'aide d'un algomètre à pression pour quantifier le seuil nociceptif mécanique. La même procédure a été répétée sur le membre controlatéral en tant que témoin, et la force maximale et le temps de réponse ont été enregistrés. Un bloc nerveux régional en quatre points a été réalisé avec 8 ml de lidocaïne à 2 %. La nociception mécanique a de nouveau été appliquée en triple exemplaire aux deux membres comme décrit ci-dessus, par un chercheur en aveugle. Suite à un traitement médical approprié, la brebis a été relâchée et le score de boiterie répété.Les valeurs médianes de la pression et du temps de retrait ont été déterminées pour les membres affectés et les membres témoins, et les différences entre les mesures du bloc avant et après le bloc de lidocaïne ont été comparées à l'aide du test ANOVA de Friedman. Le test de Wilcoxon (signed-rank) a été utilisé pour comparer le score de boiterie avant et après le bloc. Le seuil de signification statistique a été fixé à α = 0,05. PRINCIPAUX RÉSULTATS: L'utilisation du bloc à quatre points a entraîné une modification de la pression requise pour déclencher le retrait (valeur F 17,7; P < 0,0001) ainsi que du temps de retrait (valeur F 20,4; P < 0,0001), pour les membres affectées par rapport au membres témoins. Les scores de boiterie ont diminué après le bloc (statistique de Signed-rank 85,5; P < 0,0001). CONCLUSION PRINCIPALE: Le bloc nerveux en quatre points a entraîné une anesthésie du membre distal chez le mouton dans ce modèle clinique.(Traduit par Dr Serge Messier).

Evaluation of the Aptima HCV Quant Dx Assay for Hepatitis C Virus RNA Detection from Fingerstick Capillary Dried Blood Spot and Venepuncture-Collected Samples.

BACKGROUND: Simplified diagnostic strategies are needed increase hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing to determine active infection and link people into treatment. Collection methods such as dried blood spots (DBS) have advantages over standard phlebotomy, especially within marginalized populations. METHODS: We evaluated the diagnostic performance of the Aptima HCV Quant assay for the quantification and detection of HCV RNA from paired DBS and venepuncture samples. Specimens were collected from participants enrolled in an Australian observational study. We compared HCV RNA detection from DBS against venepuncture samples (gold standard). RESULTS: One hundred sixty-four participants had paired samples and HCV RNA was detected in 45 (27% [95% confidence interval, 21%-35%]) by the Aptima assay in venepuncture samples. Sensitivity of the Aptima assay for HCV RNA quantification from DBS (≥10 IU/mL in plasma) was 100% and specificity was 100%. Sensitivity for HCV RNA detection from DBS was 95.6% and specificity was 94.1%. A small bias in plasma over DBS was observed with good agreement (R2 = 0.96). CONCLUSIONS: The Aptima HCV Quant assay detects active infection from DBS samples with acceptable diagnostic performance and is clinically comparable to plasma. These data will strengthen the case for the registration of a DBS kit insert claim, enabling future clinical utility.

Reinfection Following Successful Direct-acting Antiviral Therapy for Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this analysis was to calculate the incidence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfection and associated factors among 2 clinical trials of HCV direct-acting antiviral treatment in people with recent injecting drug use or currently receiving opioid agonist therapy (OAT). METHODS: Participants who achieved an end-of-treatment response in 2 clinical trials of people with recent injecting drug use or currently receiving OAT (SIMPLIFY and D3FEAT) enrolled between March 2016 and February 2017 in 8 countries were assessed for HCV reinfection, confirmed by viral sequencing. Incidence was calculated using person-time of observation and associated factors were assessed using Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: Seventy-three percent of the population at risk of reinfection (n = 177; median age, 48 years; 73% male) reported ongoing injecting drug use. Total follow-up time at risk was 254 person-years (median, 1.8 years; range, 0.2-2.8 years). Eight cases of reinfection were confirmed for an incidence of 3.1/100 person-years (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6-6.3) overall and 17.9/100 person-years (95% CI, 5.8-55.6) among those who reported sharing needles/syringes. Younger age and needle/syringe sharing were associated with HCV reinfection. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the need for ongoing monitoring and improved strategies to prevent HCV reinfection following successful treatment among people with ongoing injecting drug use to achieve HCV elimination. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT02336139 and NCT02498015.

Sofosbuvir/velpatasvir for 12 vs. 6 weeks for the treatment of recently acquired hepatitis C infection.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Shortened duration therapy for acute and recent HCV infection has been shown to be highly effective in several small non-randomised studies with direct-acting antiviral regimens; however, large randomised studies are lacking. METHODS: REACT was an NIH-funded multicentre international, open-label, randomised, phase IV non-inferiority trial examining the efficacy of short course (6-week) vs. standard course (12-week) therapy with sofosbuvir-velpatasvir for recent HCV infection (estimated duration of infection ≤12 months). Randomisation occurred at week 6. The primary endpoint was sustained virological response 12 weeks after treatment end (SVR12) in the intention-to treat (ITT) population. A total of 250 participants were due to be enrolled, but on advice of the data safety and monitoring board the study was halted early. RESULTS: The primary analysis population consisted of 188 randomised participants at termination of study enrolment; short arm (n = 93), standard arm (n = 95). Ninety-seven percent were male and 69% HIV positive. ITT SVR12 was 76/93, 81.7% (95% CI 72.4-89.0) in the short arm and 86/95, 90.5% (95% CI 82.7-95.6) in the standard arm. The difference between the arms was -8.8 (95% CI -18.6 to 1.0). In modified ITT analysis, wherein non-virological reasons for failure were excluded (death, reinfection, loss to follow-up), SVR12 was 76/85, 89.4% (95% CI 80.8-95.0) in the short arm and 86/88, 97.7% in the standard arm (95% CI 92.0-99.7; difference -8.3%, p = 0.025). CONCLUSIONS: In this randomised study in recent HCV infection, a 6-week course of sofosbuvir-velpatasvir did not meet the criteria for non-inferiority to standard 12-week therapy. LAY SUMMARY: In this randomised trial, 188 people with recently acquired hepatitis C infection were randomly assigned to treatment using either a short 6-week course (93 people) or standard 12-week course (95 people) of the hepatitis C treatment sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. There were 9 cases of relapse after treatment with the short course and 2 following the standard course. A shortened course of 6-week therapy for hepatitis C infection appeared to be less effective than a standard 12-week course in people with recently acquired hepatitis C infection. CLINICALTRIALS. GOV IDENTIFIER: NCT02625909.

Sustaining success: a qualitative study of gay and bisexual men's experiences and perceptions of HIV self-testing in a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: HIV self-testing was proved as an effective tool for increasing testing frequency in gay and bisexual men at high risk of infection. Questions remain about understanding why HIVST encouraged testing and how such success can be translated to programmatic implementation. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative investigation of how FORTH participants experienced and perceived HIVST. Stratified sampling was used to recruit gay and bisexual men participating in the FORTH HIVST intervention to take part in interviews, focusing on infrequent testers and those who had received inaccurate HIVST results. RESULTS: Our analysis identified several prominent themes organized into two overarching domains from the 15 interviews: (i) aspects of HIVST contributing to HIV testing frequency, and (ii) sustaining HIVST into the future. Participants also believed that their use of HIVST in the future would depend on the test kit's reliability, particularly when compared with highly reliable clinic-based testing. CONCLUSION: HIVST increases the frequency of HIV testing among gay and bisexual men due, in part, to the practical, psychological, and social benefits it offers. To capitalize fully on these benefits, however, strategies to ensure the availability of highly reliable HIVST are required to sustain benefits beyond the confines of a structured research study.

Novel Hepatitic C Virus (HCV) Diagnosis and Treatment Delivery Systems: Facilitating HCV Elimination by Thinking Outside the Clinic.

The World Health Organization has set a goal to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection as public health threat by 2030. Although the advent of highly effective and tolerable direct-acting antiviral therapy has paved the way for HCV elimination, most people with HCV infection remain undiagnosed and untreated globally, with striking disparities between high-income and low- to middle-income countries. Novel decentralized and cost-effective "test-and-treat" strategies are critically needed to identify the millions of people unaware of their status and link them to treatment.

Time to Detection of Hepatitis C Virus Infection With the Xpert HCV Viral Load Fingerstick Point-of-Care Assay: Facilitating a More Rapid Time to Diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Xpert HCV Viral Load Fingerstick assay (Xpert HCV VL FS) is a point-of-care test quantifying HCV RNA in <1 hour, enabling same-visit diagnosis and treatment. METHODS: This study evaluated time to HCV RNA detection using the Xpert HCV VL FS assay. Fingerstick whole-blood samples were collected from participants in an observational cohort in Australia. RESULTS: In May 2018-2019, 1468 participants were enrolled, 1426 had Xpert HCV VL FS testing performed, and 1386 had a valid result. HCV RNA was detected in 23% (325/1386). Among people with undetectable HCV RNA (n = 1061), median time to result was 57 minutes. Among people with detectable HCV RNA (n = 325), median time to HCV RNA detection was 32 minutes and 80% (261/325) had a detectable HCV RNA result in ≤40 minutes. Median time to HCV RNA detection was dependent on HCV RNA level. CONCLUSIONS: A quicker HCV diagnosis could be achieved by monitoring the time when HCV RNA is first detected with the Xpert HCV VL FS test, rather than HCV RNA quantification, although the current platform does not allow for this. These findings could facilitate new strategies to reduce waiting times for an HCV diagnosis and improve linkage to treatment.

Moving Towards Hepatitis C Microelimination Among People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Australia: The CEASE Study.

BACKGROUND: Microelimination of hepatitis C virus (HCV) among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may be feasible in Australia, given unrestricted access to direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy from 2016. Our aim was to evaluate progress towards elimination goals within HIV/HCV-coinfected adults in Australia following universal DAA access. METHODS: The CEASE prospective cohort study enrolled adults with HIV/HCV, irrespective of viremic status, from 14 primary and tertiary clinics in Australia. Annual and cumulative HCV treatment uptake, outcome, and HCV RNA prevalence were evaluated, with follow-up through May 2018 (median follow-up, 2.63 years). Factors associated with DAA uptake were analyzed. RESULTS: Between July 2014 and March 2017, 402 participants who were HIV/HCV antibody positive were enrolled (95% male [80% gay and bisexual men,], 13% cirrhosis, 80% history of injecting drug use [39% currently injecting]). Following universal DAA access, annual HCV treatment uptake in those eligible increased from 7% and 11% per year in 2014 and 2015, respectively, to 80% in 2016. By 2018, cumulative HCV treatment uptake in those ever eligible for treatment was 91% (336/371). HCV viremic prevalence declined from 82% (95% CI, 78-86%) in 2014 to 8% (95% CI, 6-12%) in 2018. Reinfection was reported in only 5 participants for a reinfection incidence of 0.81 per 100 person-years (95% CI, 0.34-1.94). CONCLUSIONS: High uptake and effectiveness of unrestricted DAA therapy in Australia have permitted rapid treatment scale-up, with a dramatic reduction in HCV infection burden and low reinfection rate among people living with HIV, suggesting that microelimination is feasible. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT02102451.

Hepatitis C virus testing, liver disease assessment and treatment uptake among people who inject drugs pre- and post-universal access to direct-acting antiviral treatment in Australia: The LiveRLife study.

Gaps in hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing, diagnosis, liver disease assessment and treatment uptake among people who inject drugs (PWID) persist. We aimed to describe the cascade of HCV care among PWID in Australia, prior to and following unrestricted access to direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatment. Participants enrolled in an observational cohort study between 2014 and 2018 provided fingerstick whole-blood samples for dried blood spot, Xpert HCV Viral Load and venepuncture samples. Participants underwent transient elastography and clinical assessment by a nurse or general practitioner. Among 839 participants (mean age 43 years), 66% were male (n = 550), 64% (n = 537) injected drugs in the previous month, and 67% (n = 560) reported currently receiving opioid substitution therapy. Overall, 45% (n = 380) had detectable HCV RNA, of whom 23% (n = 86) received HCV treatment within 12 months of enrolment. HCV treatment uptake increased from 2% in the pre-DAA era to 38% in the DAA era. Significant liver fibrosis (F2-F4) was more common in participants with HCV infection (38%) than those without (19%). Age 50 years or older (aOR, 2.88; 95% CI, 1.18-7.04) and attending a clinical follow-up with nurse (aOR, 3.19; 95% CI, 1.61-6.32) or physician (aOR, 11.83; 95% CI, 4.89-28.59) were associated with HCV treatment uptake. Recent injection drug use and unstable housing were not associated with HCV treatment uptake. HCV treatment uptake among PWID has increased markedly in the DAA era. Evaluation of innovative and simplified models of care is required to further enhance treatment uptake.

Combined tube cystostomy and urethrotomy for the treatment of urethral obstruction due to urolithiasis in goats.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the treatment of goats with urethral obstruction secondary to urolithiasis by combining tube cystostomy and urethrotomy. ANIMALS: Eight male goats. STUDY DESIGN: Short case series. METHODS: Medical records (September 2012-September 2017) of male goats treated for obstruction secondary to urolithiasis with tube cystostomy and urethrotomy were reviewed. Data collected included signalment, history, physical examination findings, diagnostic results, perioperative treatments, operative details, hospitalization duration, intraoperative and postoperative complications, urolith analysis, and time to restoration of urethral patency. Long-term follow-up (>12 months) was obtained by email or telephone interviews of owners or by clinical examination. RESULTS: Seven of eight goats were castrated males of various of breeds. All goats were tachycardic with urethral pulsation at admission. Uroliths were composed of calcium carbonate in four goats and silica in one goat. All goats regained urethral patency during hospitalization, and all were discharged alive from the hospital. Seven goats were alive at long-term follow-up. Postoperative complications included persistent urethral obstruction requiring a second urethrotomy 2 days postoperatively, premature dislodgement of the bladder catheter and jejunal obstruction secondary to adhesions, and recurrence of obstructive urolithiasis within the proximal perineal urethra requiring a second surgery 8 months later (1 each). Long-term outcome was good, with urethral patency beyond 12 months in six of eight goats. CONCLUSION: Combining tube cystostomy and urethrotomy restored urethral patency in goats with urethral obstruction from uroliths. Although none of the complications seemed directly related to the urethrotomy, formation of abdominal adhesions and recurrence of urolithiasis affected long-term outcomes. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Uroliths that do not dissolve in acidic urine may be more frequent in some practices. The combined approach of tube cystostomy and urethrotomy appears to successfully restore urethral patency with promising long-term outcomes.

Hepatitis C virus testing, liver disease assessment and direct-acting antiviral treatment uptake and outcomes in a service for people who are homeless in Sydney, Australia: The LiveRLife homelessness study.

People who are homeless have increased hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection risk, and are less likely to access primary healthcare. We aimed to evaluate HCV RNA prevalence, liver disease burden, linkage to care and treatment uptake and outcomes among people attending a homelessness service in Sydney. Participants were enrolled in an observational cohort study with recruitment at a homelessness service over eight liver health campaign days. Finger-stick whole-blood samples for Xpert® HCV Viral Load and venepuncture blood samples were collected. Participants completed a self-administered survey and received transient elastography and clinical assessment by a general practitioner or nurse. Clinical follow-up was recommended 2-12 weeks after enrolment. For participants initiating direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy, medical records were audited retrospectively and treatment outcome data were collected. Among 202 participants (mean age, 48 years), 82% were male (n = 165), 39% (n = 78) reported ever injecting drugs, of whom 63% (n = 49) injected in the previous month. Overall, 23% (n = 47) had detectable HCV RNA and 6% (n=12) had cirrhosis. HCV RNA prevalence among participants with either injecting or incarceration history was 35% (37/105), compared to 4% (3/73) among participants without these risk factors. Among those with detectable HCV RNA, 23 (49%) commenced therapy, of whom 65% (n = 15) achieved sustained virological response, while the remainder had no available treatment outcome. No participant had documented virological failure. HCV DAA treatment uptake among people attending a homelessness service was encouraging, but innovative models of HCV care are required to improve linkage to care and treatment uptake among this highly marginalized population.

Evaluation of a hepatitis C virus core antigen assay from venepuncture and dried blood spot collected samples: A cohort study.

The global scale-up of hepatitis C virus (HCV) diagnosis requires simplified and affordable HCV diagnostic pathways. This study evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of the HCV Architect core antigen (HCVcAg) assay for detection of active HCV infection in plasma and capillary whole blood dried blood spots (DBS) compared with HCV RNA testing in plasma (Abbott RealTime HCV Viral Load). Samples were collected from participants in an observational cohort enrolled at three sites in Australia (two-drug treatment and alcohol clinics and one homelessness service). Of 205 participants, 200 had results across all samples and assay types and 186 were included in this analysis (14 participants receiving HCV therapy were excluded). HCV RNA was detected in 29% of participants ([95% CI: 22.6-36.1], 54 of 186). The sensitivity of HCVcAg for detection of active HCV infection in plasma was 98.1% (95% CI: 90-100) and 100% (95% CI: 93-100) when compared to HCV RNA thresholds of ≥12 and ≥1000 IU/mL, respectively. The sensitivity of the HCVcAg assay for detection of active HCV infection in DBS was 90.7% (95% CI: 80-97) and 92.5% (95% CI: 82-98) when compared to HCV RNA thresholds of ≥12 and ≥1000 IU/mL, respectively. The specificity of HCV core antigen for detection of active infection was 100% (95% CI: 97-100) for all samples and RNA thresholds. These data indicate that the detection of HCVcAg is a useful tool for determining active HCV infection; to facilitate enhanced testing, linkage to care and treatment particularly when testing plasma samples are collected by venepuncture.

Genomic variability of within-host hepatitis C variants in acute infection.

Interactions between the host immune system and the viral variants determine persistence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection after the acute phase of infection. This study describes the genetic variability of within-host HCV viral variants in acute infection and correlates it with host- and virus-related traits and infection outcome. Next generation sequence data (Illumina, MiSeq platform) of viral genomes from 116 incident acute infections (within 180 days of infection) were analysed to determine all the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies above a threshold of 0.1%. The variability of the SNPs for the full open reading frame of the genome as well as for each protein coding region were compared using mean standardized Shannon entropy (SE) values calculated separately for synonymous and nonsynonymous mutations. The envelope glycoproteins regions (E1 and E2) had the highest SE values (indicating greater variability) followed by the NS5B region. Nonsynonymous mutations rather than synonymous mutations were the main contributors to genomic variability in acute infection. The mean difference of Shannon entropy was also compared between subjects after categorizing the samples according to host and virus-related traits. Host IFNL3 allele CC polymorphism at rs12979860 (vs others) and viral genotype 1a (vs 3a) were associated with higher genomic variability across the viral open reading frame. Time since infection, host gender or continent of origin was not associated with the viral genomic variability. Viral genomic variability did not predict spontaneous clearance.

Evaluation of the Xpert HCV Viral Load Finger-Stick Point-of-Care Assay.

Point-of-care hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA testing is advantageous, enabling diagnosis of active infection in a single visit. This study evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of the Xpert HCV Viral Load Finger-Stick assay (Xpert HCV VL FS) for HCV RNA detection (finger-stick) and the Xpert HCV Viral Load assay (plasma) compared with the Abbott RealTime HCV Viral Load assay by venepuncture. Plasma and finger-stick capillary whole-blood samples were collected from participants in an observational cohort in Australia. Of 223 participants enrolled, HCV RNA was detected in 40% of participants (85 of 210) with available Xpert HCV Viral Load testing. Participants receiving HCV therapy were excluded from subsequent analyses (n = 16). Sensitivity of the Xpert HCV Viral Load assay for HCV RNA quantification in plasma collected by venepuncture was 100.0% (95% confidence interval [CI] 96.9%-100.0%) and specificity was 100.0% (95% CI, 94.4%-100.0%). Sensitivity of the Xpert HCV VL FS assay for HCV RNA quantification in samples collected by finger-stick was 100.0% (95% CI, 93.9%-100.0%) and specificity was 100.0% (95% CI, 96.6%-100.0%). The Xpert HCV VL FS test can accurately detect active infection from a finger-stick sample in 1 hour allowing single-visit HCV diagnosis.